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2r^e  SEni&erssito  of  Chicago, 

FOUNDED    BY    JOHN    D.   ROCKEFELLER. 


THE 

USE  OF  nn  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 


AND   OF 


DNEYMA  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


A  DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED   TO   THE    FACULTY   OF   THE   GRADUATE   DIVINITY   SCHOOL,  IN 
CANDIDACY    FOR    THE    DEGREE    OF    DOCTOR    OF   PHILOSOPHY.      • 

(DEPARTMENT  OF  BIBLICAL  THEOLOGY.) 


BY 

WILLIAM    ROSS    SCHOEMAKER. 

V  \9  R  A  ft  p 
^  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

Menominee,  Michigan. 
1904 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Part  I. 

PAGE 

THE  USE  OF   ni"!    IN   THE  OLD   TESTAMENT      .     .     13-35 

I.    Its  use  in  the  oldest  documents  of  the  Old  Testament 13 

1.  To  denote  wind 13 

2.  To  denote  spirit 15 

a)   Spirit  of  God 15 

(1)  The  non-prophetic  function  of  the  spirit 15 

(2)  The  prophetic  function  of  the  spirit 15 

F)  For  physical  strength,  courage,  etc 18 

II.    Its  icse  in  the  Dcuteronomic  period  (700-550  B.C.) 20 

1.  To  denote  wind 20 

2.  To  denote  spirit 20 

a)   Spirit  of  God 20 

(i)  The  non-prophetic  function  of  the  spirit 20 

(2)  The  prophetic  function  of  the  spirit 21 

h')  For  physical  strength  and  courage 22 

III.    Its  use  in  the  Babylonian  (^Exilic)  and  early  Persian  periods  (550- 

400  B.C.) 23 

1.  To  denote  wind  and  breath 23 

a)  To  denote  wind 23 

<^)  To  denote  breath 24 

2.  To  denote  spirit 25 

a)  Spirit  of  God 25 

(i)  The  energizing  and  transporting  power  of  God      ...  25 

(2)  The  enlightening  and  directing  power  of  God  ....  26 

(3)  God's  protecting  presence  with  Israel 27 

U)  The  spirit  of  man 28 

(i)   For  anger,  wrath,  etc.,  and  their  seat  in  man      ....  28 

(2)  As  the  seat  of  humility 29 

(3)  As  the  energizing  and  directing  power  in  man  ....  29 

IV.    Its  use  in  the  later  Persian  and  Greek  periods  (400  B.C.  on)   ...  30 

I.   To  denote  wind  and  breath '30 

a)  To  denote  wind 30 

^)  To  denote  breath 31 

iii 


144069 


IV  TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

2.   To  denote  spirit 32 

a')  Spirit  of  God 32 

(i)   The  proplietic  function  of  the  spirit 33 

(2)   Spirit  as  God's  presence  with  Israel      .......  t^'^ 

d)  Used  to  denote  human  spirit 34 

(1)  For  anger,  wrath,  and  their  seat 34 

(2)  The  seat  of  humility 34 

(3)  The  directing  power  in  conduct 34 


Part  II. 


THE  USE  OF  TTvevixa  IN  THE  CLASSICAL  WRITINGS,  THE  SEP- 
TUAGINT,  THE  APOCRYPHA,  PHILO,  JOSEPHUS,  AND  THE 
NEW  TESTAMENT 35-67 

I.    7/5  tise  in  the  Classical  writings  {of  wind  and  breath  ojtly')      ...  35 

II.    Its  use  in  the  Septuagint 36 

1.  To  denote  wind  and  breath 36 

a)  To  denote  wind        36 

U)  To  denote  breath 37 

2.  To  denote  spirit 37 

a)  Spirit  of  God 37 

h)  Non-embodied  personal  spirits 37 

c)  Spirit  denoting  physical  strength  and  courage 38 

III.    Its  use  in  the  Apocrypha  and  Pseiidepigrapha 38 

1.  To  denote  wind  and  breath 39 

«)  To  denote  wind .  39 

3)  To  denote  breath 39 

2.  To  denote  spirit 39 

a~)   Spirit  of  God 39 

b)  Unembodied  or  disembodied  personal  spirits 40 

(i)   Good  spirits,  angelic  beings 40 

(2)  Evil  spirits  capable  of  tormenting  living  persons     ...  40 

(3)  Disembodied  human  spirits 41 

<:)  For  strength,  courage,  anger,  etc.,  and  their  seal  in  man    .     .  41 

IV.    Its  use  by  Philo .  42 

1.  To  denote  wind  and  breath 42 

a')  To  denote  wind        42 

b')  To  denote  breath 43 

2.  To  denote  spirit 43 

«)   Spirit  of  God 43 

b')  The  spirit  or  mind  of  man 44 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  V 

PAGE 

V.    Its  use  by  Josephus 45 

1.  To  denote  wind  and  breath 45 

a)  To  denote  wind        45 

b)  To  denote  breath  or  life 45 

2.  To  denote  spirit 46 

a)  Spirit  of  God 46 

b)  Disembodied  personal  spirits 46 

(i)   For  good  spirits 46 

(2)   For  evil  spirits  possessing  and  tormenting  men       ...  46 

<r)  Strength  and  courage 46 

VI.    Its  use  in  the  New  Testament 47 

1.  To  denote  wind  and  breath 47 

a)  To  denote  wind        47 

^)  To  denote  breath 47 

2.  To  denote  spirit 49 

a)   Spirit  of  God 49 

(1)  The  teaching  of  Jesus  concerning  the  Holy  Spirit  .     .     .  49 

(rt)   In  the  synoptic  gospels 49 

(/;)    In  the  gospel  of  John 50 

(2)  The  teachings  of  the  four  evangelists 52 

(3)  The   teachings   of  Acts,   the   catholic   epistles^   and    the 

Apocalypse 53 

(rt)   The  spirit  as  author  of  prophecy 54 

(U)   As  the  helper  and  director  of  believers 56 

(f)   As  a  witnessing  and  revealing  power  in  the  believer  56 

(4)  The  teaching  of  the  Pauline  epistles 57 

(«)  The  gift  of  speaking  with  tongues 58 

(J))   The  gift  of  prophecy 59 

(r)   The  gift  of  the  spirit  to  work  miracles 60 

((/)  The  spirit  as  the  bearer  of  wisdom  and  knowledge 

to  the  believer 60 

(d")    The  spirit  as  a  regenerating  and  sanctifying  power  .  61 

b^  The  human  spirit  {i.e.  the  spirit  of  the  living  man)  ....  63 

(i)  The  seat  or  source  of  strong  excitement 63 

(2)  The  seat  of  humility 64 

(3)  The  seat  or  source  of  thoughts  and  purposes      ....  64 

c)  Unembodied  or  disembodied  spirits 66 

(i)   Divine  and  angelic  beings  capable  of  existence  without 

a  physical  body 66 

(2)  Demons,  or  evil  spirits,  non-embodied 66 

(3)  Disembodied  human  spirits 67 


The  Use  of  n^"l  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
of  TTvevjxa  in  the  New  Testament. 

A  LEXICOGRAPHICAL   STUDY 

BY 

WILLIAM    ROSS    SCHOEMAKER,    PH.D. 

MENOMINEE,    MICH. 

Part  I. 

THE   USE   OF   nn   IN  THE   OLD  TESTAMENT. 

THE  following  investigation  is  an  attempt  to  trace  the  growth  in 
meaning,  as  well  as  to  classify  every  occurrence  in  the  Old 
Testament,  of  the  Hebrew  term  llTn.  For  this  purpose,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  arrange  the  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  whose  writ- 
ing covered  a  period  of  several  hundred  years,  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  chronological  order.  Since  the  dating  of  most  of  it  has  been  done 
quite  thoroughly,  we  shall  in  the  study  before  us  assume  the  com- 
monly accepted  dates.  In  the  course  of  the  investigation  it  was 
found  that  the  development  in  the  conceptions  and  meanings  con- 
nected with  the  term  would  best  be  displayed  by  arranging  the 
biblical  material  in  four  chronological  groups. 

I.  The  Use  of  HH  z«  the  Oldest  D oaiments  of  the  Old 
Testament  Literature,  dating  approximately  from  900 
to  700  B.C} 

In  this  period  the  word  has  but  two  general  meanings,  wind  and 
spirit.  The  idea  of  breath  does  not  seem  to  have  become  attached 
to  it  until  exilic  and  post-exilic  times.  At  least  there  are  no  clear 
examples  of  this  use  before  that  time. 

I.    rn*l  used  to  denote  tvind. 

Of  the  two  uses  of  the  term,  "  wind  "  and  "  spirit,"  wind  seems  to 

^J  and  E  of  the  Hexateuch;  the  oldest  portions  of  the  Books  of  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings;  and  the  writings  of  the  eighth-century  prophets,  Amos, 
Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Micah  (omitting  the  later  additions  to  their  prophecies). 


14  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

be  the  more  clearly  defined.  It  is  the  customary  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  word  when  unaccompanied  by  any  explanatory  modifier.  No 
other  term  is  used  to  denote  wind  in  this  early  literature.  It  is  used 
of  both  a  zephyr  and  a  storm.  The  conception  of  wind  as  air  in 
motion  is,  of  course,  entirely  absent  from  the  thought  of  the  early 
Hebrews.  Nor  did  they  seem  to  know  that  in  breathing  a  man 
inhaled  air  or  wind.  Such  conceptions  were  not  reached  by  the 
Hebrews  until  much  later  in  their  history.  When  tlT^  came  to  be 
employed  of  breath  as  well  as  of  wind,  it  was  not  through  any  idea 
of  the  physical  identity  of  the  two,  but  rather  through  the  recog- 
nition of  a  similarity  between  the  phenomena.  Breath  was  nothing 
more  than  a  miniature  wind.  For  the  early  Hebrews  the  two  lead- 
ing characteristics  of  the  wind  were  energy  and  invisibility.  At  first 
it  was  the  energy  and  power  of  the  wind  which  attracted  the  most 
attention ;  later,  as  in  Job  and  Ecclesiastes,  it  was  its  invisibility  and 
emptiness.  The  power  of  the  wind  is  very  well  illustrated  in  the 
Elijah  and  Elisha  narratives.  It  is  a  great  and  strong  wind  that 
rends  the  mountains  (i  K.  19")  ;  and  a  storm  wind  that  brings  the 
rain  (2  K.  3^^^ ;  cf.  i  K.  iS"*^).  Isaiah  pictures  the  trees  of  the  wood 
swayed  to  and  fro  by  it  (Isa.  7-),  and  the  chaff  driven  before  it  (Isa. 
17^^).  The  idea  of  the  invisibility  and  emptiness  of  the  wind  is  set 
forth  by  Hosea  when  he  afiirms  that  Ephraim  feeds  upon  wind,  and 
says  that  the  wind  hath  wrapped  her  up  in  its  wings  (Hos.  12^'^-^ 
and  41^ ;  cf.  8')- 

This  powerful  and  invisible  force  is  under  the  direct  control  of 
God.  It  goes  forth  from  him  to  do  his  bidding.  Thus,  by  an  east 
wind  the  Lord  brings  the  locusts  upon  the  land  of  Egypt  (Exod. 
lo^'^  [J])  ')  arid  again  by  a  strong  west  wind  he  drives  them  into  the 
sea  (Exod.  10^^  [!])•  By  the  east  wind  he  causes  the  waters  of  the 
Red  Sea  to  go  back  all  the  night  in  order  that  his  people  may  cross 
on  dry  land  (Exod.  14^^  [J])-  By  a  wind  which  goes  forth  from  him, 
he  brings  the  quails  in  order  that  Israel  may  be  fed  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  11'^^  [J])-  The  hot  wind  which  comes  up  from  the  desert  is 
called  the  wind  of  the  Lord  (Hos.  13^^). 

With  the  conception  of  the  wind  as  an  invisible  power  of  God,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  early  Hebrews  easily  carried  over  the  term 
ni"!  to  designate  the  unseen  but  powerful  influences  which  appeared 
to  operate  within  the  physical  and  psychical  life  of  man.  God, 
by  his  unseen  but  powerful  lin  (spirit),  acted  upon  man  in  much 
the  same  way  as,  through  his  tlTl  (wind),  he  acted  upon  natural 
objects. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   111")   AND   OF   Trvevfjua.  1 5 

2.  ftl*!  t/sed  to  denote  spirit, 
a)  Spirit  of  God. 

There  were  two  leading  conceptions  (at  bottom  one)  of  the 
function  of  the  spirit  of  God. 

( 1 )  77/1?  non-prophetic  function  in  which  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  fell 
suddenly  upon  some  leader  or  hero,  arousing  him  to  action  and 
imparting  to  him  the  physical  strength  and  courage  to  perform  some 
extraordinary  deed  of  valor.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  stories  of 
Gideon  and  Samson  in  the  Book  of  Judges.  Thus,  when  the  spirit 
came  upon  Samson,  he  tore  the  lion  in  pieces  with  perfect  ease 
(Judg.  \A^-^  [J])>  and  at  another  time  he  rent  asunder  the  cord  with 
which  his  hands  were  bound  (Judg.  15"  [J]).  It  was  when  the  spirit 
clothed  Gideon  that  he  blew  the  trumpet  and  gathered  the  armies  of 
Israel  together  (Judg.  6'^"'"  [J]  ;  cf.  Judg.  13^  with  14^  [J]).  Like- 
wise Saul,  under  a  similar  impulse,  summoned  the  warriors  to  the 
defence  of  Jabesh  (i  Sam.  11"  [J]).  In  this  case  the  spirit  of  the 
Lord  not  only  stirred  up  Saul's  courage  but  his  anger  (indignation) 
as  well.  In  fact,  in  this  early  period,  anger  seems  to  have  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  legitimate  and  necessary  means  of  self- 
defence,  hence  not  essentially  evil.  Strength,  courage,  and  anger 
were  so  closely  linked  together  that  it  is  probable  that  they  were  dis- 
tinguished only  in  a  vague  and  general  way.  A  similar  view  of  the 
power  and  courage  imparted  by  the  spirit  of  God  is  set  forth  by 
Isaiah  when  he  says  of  the  Egyptians  that  they  are  men  and  not  God, 
and  that  their  horses  are  flesh  (weak  and  powerless)  and  not  spirit 
(the  power  imparted  by  God.  Isa.  31^).  Micah  asserts  that  he  is 
full  of  power  by  the  spirit  (Mic.  3^  Wellhausen,  Nowack,  and 
Briggs  regard  "  by  the  spirit "  in  this  passage  as  a  gloss  of  some  later 
scribe),  and  asks  whether  the  spirit  of  the  I>ord  is  shortened  (Mic. 
2'^).  "  Shortened "  Cni^i^)  can  mean  impotent,  powerless,  as  in 
Isa.  50-;  or  impatient,  angry,  as  in  Job  21*  Prov.  14-"^  Exod.  6"  [P]. 
G  translates  the  present  passage  in  the  latter  way,  and  most  inter- 
preters follow  this  version.  A  still  more  striking  example  of  the 
power  of  the  spirit  is  presented  in  the  stories  connected  with  Elijah. 
An  early  writer  represents  Elijah  as  transported  from  place  to  place 
by  the  spirit  of  God  (i  K.  18'-  2  K.  2^^;  cf.  Ezek.  83-^"=-  Acts  ^^). 

(2)  The  prophetic  function,  in  which  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  came 
upon  the  prophets  and  stirred  them  up  to  a  state  of  ecstasy,  or  reli- 
gious frenzy,  in  which  state  they  were  able  to  receive  and  communi- 
cate the  divine  message  imparted  to  them.  This  function  of  the 
spirit  is  well  illustrated  in   i  Sam.    10^'".      The  band  of  inspired 


1 6  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

prophets,  who  roam  about  carrying  their  musical  instruments  with 
them,  are  clearly  in  a  state  of  ecstasy.  When  Saul  met  them,  the 
spirit  fell  suddenly  upon  him,  and  he,  too,  prophesied  with  the  rest 
(i  Sam.  lo'";  cf.  i  Sam.  19^"-^'^).  Because  of  his  frenzy  and  ecstasy, 
he  is  said  to  be  changed  into  another  man  (i  Sam.  10").  Men  so 
enthused  by  the  spirit  of  God  regarded  themselves  as  entirely  under 
the  spirit's  control.  Hence  what  they  said  and  did  was  looked  upon 
as  coming  directly  from  God  (Num.  24-  [J]  ;  cf.  24^- ^^•^'').  The  pri- 
mary function  of  the  spirit,  however,  was  not  that  of  message-bearing. 
God  more  often  conveyed  his  messages  to  men  by  means  of  direct 
discourse  (Gen.  21^-  22^  Exod.  3";  cf.  4-^  [all  E]),  or  by  an  angel 
(Gen.  22"  21^^  31"  32I  [all  E],  Gen.  24^  16'""  Exod.  3-  [all  J]),  or 
in  a  dream  (Gen.  20'''''  31"  31-^  37^"™  [all  E]).  In  this  early  period, 
the  primary  function  of  the  spirit  of  God  was  that  of  arousing  in  the 
prophet  the  state  of  ecstasy.  God  by  his  spirit  enthused  the  prophet 
—  stirred  him  up.  Thus  we  see  that  at  bottom  the  prophetic  func- 
tion of  the  spirit  was  identical  with  the  non-prophetic.  In  both 
cases  the  spirit  stirred  up  and  energized  men.  In  the  case  of 
Gideon,  the  spirit  aroused  to  action  ;  in  the  case  of  the  prophet,  to 
a  state  of  ecstasy.  It  is  evident  that  until  this  factor  of  ecstasy  could 
be  eliminated,  or  reduced  to  a  minimum,  the  message  of  the  prophet 
would  be  discredited.  This  ehmination  of  the  ecstatic  occurred 
during  the  following,  the  Deuteronomic,  period.  There  are  many 
indications  that,  at  the  time  of  our  earliest  literature,  these  ecstatic 
prophets  were  already  under  the  ban.  Hosea  calls  the  prophet  a 
fool,  and  says  that  the  man  of  the  spirit  is  mad  (Hos.  9^'^;  cf.  2  K.  9^^ 
and  Jer.  29-*^)  ;  and  Micah  affirms  that  they  speak  lies  and  prophesy 
of  wine  and  strong  drink  (Micah  2").  None  of  the  writing  prophets, 
Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  or  Micah,  state  explicitly  that  they  prophesied 
by  means  of  the  spirit  of  God,  though  in  the  case  of  some  of  them 
this  may  be  implied. 

The  spirit  was  regarded  as  operative  only  while  the  prophet  was 
in  the  state  of  ecstasy.  When  Saul  had  finished  prophesying  he 
returned  to  his  ordinary  vocation  (i  Sam.  10^^).  However,  the  man 
in  whom  the  spirit  repeatedly  manifested  itself  came  to  be  desig- 
nated as  "  the  man  of  the  spirit"  (Hos.  9'^).  So  it  was  with  Elijah 
and  Elisha,  Elisha  prayed  that  a  double  portion  (the  portion  that 
falls  by  right  to  the  eldest  son)  of  the  spirit  possessed  by  his  master 
might  rest  upon  him  (2  K.  2^).  In  this  latter  case  the  possession 
of  the  spirit  meant  also  the  power  to  work  miracles.  The  prophets 
who  stood  at  a  distance  perceived  that  the  spirit  of  Elijah  rested 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   ril"!    AND   OF  TTj'Cv/ia.  I  ^ 

upon  Elisha  when  they  saw  the  latter  perform  the  same  miracle 
which  the  former  had  just  accomplished  (2  K.  2"-^^;  cf.  2^*).  In 
the  case  of  Joseph  the  possession  of  the  spirit  gave  him  the  ability 
to  interpret  dreams  (Gen.  4i^*-'  [E]). 

In  all  of  these  cases  the  work  of  the  spirit  was  beneficent  to 
all  concerned,  but  there  were  some  ecstatic  phenomena  where  the 
results  were  harmful.  When,  as  in  the  case  of  Saul,  the  frenzy  took 
the  form  of  a  dangerous  insanity,  the  cause  was  said  to  be  the  spirit 
of  God  (for)  evil  (i  Sam.  i6i^i«-^  [J])?  or  the  spirit  of  evil  from  the 
Lord  (i  Sam.  i6"-^  [J])-  The  spirit  itself  is  not  said  to  be  evil  or 
to  have  an  evil  disposition.  It  is  only  the  effect  upon  the  man  that 
is  said  to  be  evil.  The  spirit  terrorizes  him  and  causes  him  to  be 
injurious  to  others.  The  spirit  is  not  viewed  as  a  separate  person- 
ality existing  alongside  of  God  (as  Satan  in  the  Book  of  Job),  but 
rather  as  an  influence  or  power  proceeding  from  him.  The  work 
done  is  conceived  to  be  from  God  as  much  as  in  the  case  of  the 
"  spirit  for  good  "  (cf.  i  K.  22-^"-"'  and  see  Briggs,  Jour,  of  Bib.  Lit., 
Vol.  XIX.  p.  141).  A  kindred  conception  is  presented  by  Isaiah 
when  he  tells  erring  Israel  to  stupefy  and  Wind  themselves,  to  be 
drunken  and  stagger  but  not  with  drink,  for  the  Lord  has  poured  out 
upon  them  "  spirit  of  deep  sleep  "  (Isa.  29^°).  Here  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  spirit  is  clearly  an  ecstatic  one.  The  people  stagger 
and  reel  as  if  drunken  (cf.  Mic.  2").  The  spirit,  instead  of  enabling 
the  prophets  and  seers  to  speak  forth  the  will  of  God,  silences  them. 
The  function  of  the  spirit  described  in  this  Isaiah  passage  is  thus  the 
opposite  of  its  true  function.  As  a  warning  to  erring  Israel,  Isaiah 
could  not  well  have  chosen  a  more  striking  figure.  Israel  had 
neglected  to  follow  the  guidance  of  the  spirit,  hence  God  used  it  as  a 
means  of  leading  her  astray.  Hosea  used  a  similar  figure,  but  in  his 
case  the  metonymy  is  still  more  apparent.  He  says  that  Israel  seeks 
counsel  of  her  idols,  implying  that  she  will  not  be  guided  by  God. 
She  prefers  to  be  directed  by  the  spirit  of  whoredom  and  thus  to 
wander  away  from  him  (Hos.  4^^  5^).  She  follows  her  own  lustful 
impulses  rather  than  the  dictates  of  the  spirit  of  God.  The  prophet 
is  not  to  be  understood  as  affirming  that  he  believes  there  is  a 
demoniac  spirit  possessing  the  people  and  leading  them  astray.  A 
clear  case  of  the  use  of  111"!  to  denote  a  demon  does  not  seem  to 
occur  in  the  Old  Testament.  Nor  does  his  language  imply  that  he 
conceived  the  lust  to  proceed  from  their  own  spirits.  This  again 
would  be  a  use  of  HI"!  entirely  without  parallel,  since  lust  is  never 
attributed  to  the  human  spirit.      Hence  it  seems  probable  that  we 


1 8  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

have  here  simply  an  analogic  metonymy,  in  which  HI")  stands  for 
guiding  and  impelling  power  without  designating  its  source." 

Thus,  for  the  early  Hebrews,  the  idea  of  spirit  seems  to  have  been 
almost  as  general  as  the  idea  of  wind.  Both  were  energies  or  powers 
proceeding  from  God.  The  quantitative  notion  attached  to  the  one 
as  much  as  to  the  other.  That  they  did  not  ascribe  to  the  spirit  a 
personality  separate  from  God  is  made  more  certain  from  the  fact 
that  in  no  Old  Testament  writing  is  there  a  clear  case  of  the  use  of 
nn  to  denote  separate,  individual,  disembodied,  personal  spirits, 
either  good  or  bad.  The  plural  form  of  the  term  is  never  used  in 
this  sense.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  there  was  but  one  spirit  of 
God. 

b)  ni"l  used  to  dejiote  physical  strength,  courage,  and  anger,  and 
viewed  sometimes  as  the  seat  or  source  of  these  and  especially  of 
violent  agitation. 

These  phenomena  are  so  strikingly  a  reflection  of  the  phenomena 
connected  with  the  spirit  of  God  that  one  is  immediately  driven  to 
the  conclusion  that  there  must  be  some  genetic  relation  between  the 
two.  What  that  relation  is  can  best  be  stated  when  we  have  exam- 
ined the  passages  of  Scripture  in  which  this  meaning  occurs.  To 
illustrate  the  use  of  H^l  to  denote  physical  strength  and  courage, 
there  are  three  examples.  Samson's  spirit  (llTl)  returned  and 
he  revived  as  soon  as  his  thirst  was  quenched  (Judg.  15^^  [!])• 
Likewise  the  spirit  of  an  Egyptian  returned  after  he  had  eaten 
(i  Sam.  30'-  [J])-  Jacob's  spirit  revived  when  he  saw  the  wagons 
which  Joseph  had  sent  to  carry  him  to  Egypt  (Gen.  45^  [E]). 
Under  the  head  of  anger  or  the  seat  of  stubbornness  and  violent  agi- 
tation there  are  also  three  passages.  The  spirit  (anger)  of  the  men 
of  Ephraim  was  abated  toward  Gideon  when  he  had  explained  to 
them  why  they  were  not  called  out  to  battle  (Judg.  8'^  [E]).  Ahab's 
spirit  was  sullen  when  he  could  not  get  the  vineyard  of  Naboth  (i  K. 
21^).  And  Pharaoh's  spirit  was  agitated  (stirred  up  □"£)  when 
he  awoke  from  his  dream  (Gen.  41^  [E]).  These  examples  are  the 
only  ones  found  in  this  period.  The  preexilic  prophets  do  not  use 
the  term  in  this  sense  unless  Micah  2''  is  a  case  in  point. 

On  the  basis  of  these  examples,  the  conclusion  seems  certain  that 
the  concept  of  the  spirit  of  man  (denoting  thereby  strength,  courage, 

2  Cf.  the  use  of  i'6/ios,  law,  in  a  similar  way  in  Rom.  7^3,  where  "  a  different 
law,"  not  a  law  at  all  in  the  strict  sense,  but  a  force  tending,  as  law  serves,  to 
control  action,  is  by  "  analogic  metonymy  "  called  law,  in  contrast  to  the  [real] 
law  which  acts  in  the  opposite  direction. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   nn   AND   OF   TTvevfUt.  1 9 

and  anger)  is  an  outgrowth  from  the  concept  of  the  spirit  of  God. 
Since  God  imparts  his  spirit  of  strength  and  courage  to  man, 
strength  and  courage  are  themselves  in  time  called  spirit.  Or  again, 
since  the  spirit  of  God  stirs  up  men  to  warlike  actions,  what  more 
natural  than  to  call  that  in  man  which  is  stirred  up  his  spirit  (cf. 
Judg.  1 3-'  [J]  with  Gen.  41*  [E]  where  the  same  verb  [DVS]  is 
used.  Also  cf.  i  Sam.  ii*^  with  Judg.  8^  [E],  both  of  which  involve 
anger)  ?  Or,  viewed  from  another  standpoint,  such  kindred  phe- 
nomena as  strength,  courage,  and  anger,  which  in  their  most  striking 
manifestations,  at  least,  were  at  one  time  attributed  to  the  divine 
power,  were  later,  owing  perhaps  to  their  frequency,  designated  the 
spirit  of  man.  Judges  9-^  is  a  passage  which  bears  the  marks  of  such 
a  transition.  It  is  there  said  that  God  sent  a  spirit  for  evil  between 
Abimelech  and  the  men  of  Shechem.  On  the  one  hand,  this 
reminds  us  of  the  language  used  concerning  the  spirit  of  evil  from 
the  Lord  (i  Sam.  16^^^)  ;  on  the  other,  of  the  phenomenon  of 
anger  called  the  spirit  of  man.  In  a  later  period,  the  thought  of  the 
passage  would  have  been  expressed  b}'  saying  that  God  stii-red  up 
the  spirit  of  Abimelech  and  of  the  men  of  Shechem  (cf  i  Chron. 
5-'«  2  Chron.  2\^^). 

If  now  we  have  discovered  the  true  genetic  relationship  between 
the  spirit  of  God  and  the  spirit  of  man,  it  seems  clear  that  the  latter 
was  not,  in  its  earhest  stages  at  least,  regarded  as  a  faculty  of  the 
soul  or  mind.  It  was  simply  the  name  of  certain  striking  physical 
and  mental  phenomena  related  to  the  active  side  of  life,  such  as 
strength,  courage,  and  anger.  It  was  in  no  way  regarded  as  the  seat 
of  life  or  the  bearer  of  the  man's  personality.  It  was  not  used  as  a 
synonym  of  either  soul  (t^B3)  or  heart  (D7),  the  leading  psycho- 
logical terms  of  the  period.  The  spirit  was  not  locahzed  in  any  part 
of  the  body.  From  its  very  nature  this  was  impossible.  The  man's 
spirit  (strength,  courage,  and  anger)  departed  and  returned,  but  no 
one  thought  of  asking  where  it  had  been.  Even  in  the  popular 
language  of  to-day,  courage  and  anger  are  not  localized.  We  speak 
of  their  coming  and  going  in  the  same  vague  and  general  way  that 
the  people  of  old  spoke  of  the  spirit. 


20  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

II.    The  Use  of  HH  in  the  Deiiteronomic  Period  dating  from 
about  700  to  about  550  B.C? 

In  general  the  term  is  used  in  the  same  senses  as  in  the  previous 
period.  The  one  striking  exception  occurs  in  the  case  of  the  spirit 
of  God.  There  is  an  entire  absence  of  that  term  from  the  main 
body  of  the  Uterature  of  this  period. 

1.  The  use  of  HTl  for  wind. 

Jeremiah  very  often  refers  to  the  destructive  power  of  the  wind 
(Jer.  4"-^-  13-'*  18^'').  He  also  speaks  of  the  wind  as  a  shepherd  of 
the  pastors  of  Israel,  who  have  caused  the  people  to  go  astray  (Jer. 
22-^).  Habakkuk,  in  describing  the  pride  and  haughtiness  of  the 
Chaldean,  says  that  he  sweeps  by  as  a  wind  and  passes  on  (Hab.  i"). 
Jeremiah,  on  the  other  hand,  also  uses  the  wind  as  a  symbol  of 
emptiness.  The  prophets,  he  says,  shall  become  wind  since  the 
word  is  not  in  them  (Jer.  5^").  Israel,  in  her  inordinate  desire  after 
strange  gods,  is  like  a  wild  ass  with  open  mouth  catching  at  the  wind 
(Jer.  2-*  14®).  In  Jer.  ^^^-■'^  XVr\  is  used  by  metonymy  for  the  points 
of  the  compass  —  the  directions  from  which  the  wind  blows. 

2.  The  use  of  111*1  for  spirit. 
a)   Spirit  of  God. 

As  stated  above,  the  phrase  "  spirit  of  God  "  does  not  occur  in  the 
main  body  of  the  literature  of  this  period.  It  is  not  found  in  D  of 
the  Hexateuch  (only  once  in  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy  and  that  in  a 
late  passage),  nor  in  the  Deuteronomic  portions  of  the  books  of 
Kings,  nor  even  in  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  Zephaniah,  Nahum, 
and  Habakkuk.  This  abandonment  of  the  term  spirit  of  God  was 
probably  due  to  the  disrepute  into  which  the  ecstatic  prophets  had 
fallen.*  The  period  had  at  its  heart  the  religio-ethical  revival  of 
Josiah,  and  ethics  and  ecstasy  have  little  in  common.  However, 
there  are  certain  fragments  of  literature  belonging  to  this  period  in 
which  the  phrase  spirit  of  God  is  used,  and  some  of  these  are  quite 
instructive  for  our  purpose. 

(i)  The  non-prophetic  function  of  the  spirit.  —  The  spirit  of  the 
Lord  stirs  up  and  empowers  certain  persons  to  do  acts  requiring 
great  physical  strength  and  courage.      Thus  when  the  spirit  of  God 

3  The  literature  of  the  period  incluHes  D  of  the  Hexateuch;  the  Deuteronomic 
portions  of  the  Books  of  Judges  and  Kings;  and,  with  the  exception  of  later 
additions,  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  Zephaniah,  Nahum,  and  Habakkuk. 

*  See  Briggs,  Jour,  of  Bib.  Lit.,  Vol.  XIX.  p.  140;  also  Jer.  5^3;  zg^^-Sf; 
Isa.  3o9- 1»;   I  Sam.  io"-i3;   Hos.  9^- «;   Micah  2I1. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   nil   AND   OF  wedfJLa.  2 1 

was  upon  Othniel,  he  went  out  to  war  and  vindicated  Israel  (Judg. 
S^'^).  So,  too,  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  stirred  up  Jephthah  and  he  went 
forth  to  conquer  Amnion  (Judg.  ii-"^).  Likewise,  when  the  spirit  of 
the  Lord  fell  upon  Samson  he  went  down  to  Ashkelon  and  killed 
thirty  men  (Judg.  14^^). 

(2)  T/i€  prophetic  function  of  the  spirit.  —  The  spirit  of  the  Lord 
arouses  certain  men  —  the  prophets  —  to  a  state  of  ecstasy  and  thus 
enables  them  to  prophesy  for  God.  There  are  but  two  passages 
which  can  properly  be  classed  here.  Li  Num.  11^'"^,  the  Lord  tells 
Moses  that  he  will  take  of  the  spirit  which  is  upon  him  and  will  put 
it  upon  the  seventy  elders.  After  the  Lord  had  transferred  a  portion 
of  the  spirit  from  Moses  to  each  of  the  elders,  they,  including  the 
two  who  had  remained  in  the  camp,  began  to  prophesy.  When 
Joshua  remonstrated  with  Moses  against  the  two  latter  prophesying 
in  the  camp,  Moses  replied,  "  Would  God  that  all  the  Lord's  people 
were  prophets,  that  the  Lord  would  put  his  spirit  upon  them  "  (Num. 
11^).  We  have  here  one  of  the  first  instances  in  which  the  spirit  of 
the  Lord  is  designated  simply  as  "  the  spirit."  This  passage,  like 
those  of  2  K.  2^  and  Isa.  29",  presents  a  general  or  quantitative  con- 
ception of  the  spirit.  Each  elder  participated  in  the  one  spirit  of 
God.  A  view  like  this  seems  to  preclude  any  thought  of  the  sepa- 
rate personality  of  the  spirit.  The  second  passage  is  i  K.  22^^^^ 
Micaiah,  in  narrating  his  vision  to  the  king  of  Israel,  says  that  he  saw 
the  Lord  sitting  upon  his  throne  and  all  the  host  of  heaven  standing 
on  his  right  hand  and  on  his  left.  When  the  Lord  had  inquired  of 
them  who  would  go  and  deceive  Ahab,  and  no  one  of  them  volun- 
teered, the  spit-it  came  forward  and  said,  "  I  will  entice  him  by 
becoming  a  spirit  of  deceit  in  the  mouth  of  his  prophets."  That  the 
writer  of  this  passage  has  personified  the  spirit  is  quite  evident.  He 
represents  the  spirit  as  speaking  and  acting  just  as  a  person  would 
do  under  similar  circumstances.  That,  however,  he  did  not  intend 
to  go  be3'ond  personification  is  also  quite  evident.  In  the  first  place, 
we  must  remember  that  the  writer  is  narrating,  in  vivid  language,  a 
vision  which  he  had  had.  He  is  not  speaking  in  plain  prose  and 
with  theological  accuracy.  In  the  second  place,  we  must  note  that 
when  he  is  describing  the  real  work  of  the  spirit  he  falls  back  upon 
the  ordinary  view  of  its  nature.  The  spirit  is  not  said  to  have  gone 
to  Ahab  or  to  one  of  his  prophets  simply  as  an  angel  would,  but  on 
the  contrary  becomes  a  lying  spirit  in  the  mouth  of  all  the  four 
hundred  prophets.  All  of  these  prophets  participate  in  and  are 
stimulated  by  the  one  spirit.      The  use  of  the  article  in  v.-^  does  not 


22  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

indicate  that  the  spirit  was  one  among  other  spirits  standing  about 
the  throne.  Neither  in  the  singular  nor  in  the  plural  is  1111  ever 
used  of  the  heavenly  hosts.  It  was  only  after  the  host  (the  angels) 
had  given  their  opinions  that  the  one  divine  spirit  came  forward  to 
proffer  its  aid.  Nor  does  its  task  of  deception  make  it  an  evil  spirit. 
The  writer  does  not  even  call  it  the  spirit  of  God  for  evil  as  is  done 
in  I  Sam.  i6^^"-^  In  spite  of  the  function  which  it  performed  it  is 
simply  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  (i  K.  22-'').  A  similar  function  of  the 
spirit  appears  in  2  K.  19^  (=  Isa.  37'').  God  by  his  spirit  arouses  in 
the  king  of  Assyria  a  feeling  of  fear  and  quickens  in  him  the  impulse 
to  withdraw  his  army  from  Jewish  territory.  Hll  is  here  used  with- 
out the  article,  and  is  viewed  simply  as  a  power  of  God  —  that  power 
by  which  he  enters  into  and  influences  men. 

^)  ni*l  used  to  denote  physical  strength,  courage,  anger,  stubborn- 
ness, etc.,  or  their  seat  or  source. 

This  usage  is  not  found  in  the  writings  of  any  prophet  of  this 
period  (nor  indeed  of  any  preexilic  prophet)  and  but  once  in  the 
Book  of  Deuteronomy  (Deut.  2'^'^.  In  those  fragments  of  literature 
in  which  it  does  occur,  it  is  used  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  in 
the  previous  period.  As  examples  of  HH  used  to  denote  physical 
strength  and  courage,  we  have  at  least  two  passages.  It  is  said  of 
the  queen  of  Sheba,  that  after  she  had  seen  the  wisdom  'of  Solomon 
and  the  house  that  he  had  built,  there  was  no  more  spirit  in  her 
(i  K.  10^  [=  2  Chron.  g'*]).  There  was  no  more  spirit  in  the  kings 
of  the  Amorites  and  Canaanites  whqn  they  heard  that  the  Lord  had 
dried  up  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Jordan  River  (Josh.  2" 
5^).  Of  its  use  to  denote  anger  or  the  seat  of  stubbornness  and  obsti- 
nacy, we  have  three  examples.  It  is  said  that  the  Lord  hardened 
(made  obstinate  or  angry)  the  spirit  of  Sihon,  king  of  Heshbon,  so 
that  he  would  not  permit  Israel  to  pass  by  (Deut.  2^°).  Hannah  said 
that  she  was  a  woman  of  a  hard  (or  rebellious)  spirit  and  so  had 
come  to  pour  out  her  soul  before  the  Lord  (i  Sam.  i^^).  Caleb  was 
permitted  to  enter  the  promised  land  because  he  had  shown  another 
spirit,  i.e.  had  not  provoked  the  Lord  by  his  obstinacy  and  rebellious- 
ness as  the  others  had  done  (Num.  14"^). 

It  thus  seems  clear  that  the  Deuteronomic  period  added  nothing 
to  the  concept  or  use  of  the  term  ni"l.  This  is  all  the  more  remark- 
able when  we  remember  that  it  was  during  this  very  period  that  the 
most  rapid  development  occurred  in  the  meanings  of  such  psycho- 
logical terms  as  soul  (U^S?)  and  heart  (3?).  The  word  "spirit" 
found  no   place   in  the   fundamental  ethical  precept  of  the  time. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   mi   AND   OF  Trvevfxa.  23 

"Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  with  all  thy  heart,  with  all  thy  soul,  and 
with  all  thy  might "  (Deut.  6^). 

III.  T/ie  Use  of  1111  in  the  Babylonian  {Exilic)  and  Early 
Persian  Periods,  dating  from  about  550  to  about 
400  B.C.^ 

If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Deuteronomic  period  was  characterized 
by  the  least  possible  (or  even  a  negative)  development  in  the  use  of 
ni*l ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Babylonian  and  early  Persian  periods 
were  characterized  by  the  most  rapid  development  in  all  the  mean- 
ings of  the  term.  In  connection  with  the  meaning  wind,  we  have 
the  term  used  to  denote  breath,  and  also  (since  breathing  is  neces- 
sary to  life)  by  metonymy  for  life  itself;  the  phrase  spirit  of  God  is 
rescued  from  its  former  reproach  and  has  a  larger  and  more  religio- 
ethical  content  put  into  it ;  and,  finally,  the  concept  of  the  spirit  of 
man  is  extended  to  include  a  portion  of  the  realm  of  conduct  and 
character. 

I.    ni'n  1/sed  to  denote  wind  and  breath. 

a)   To  denote  wind. 

The  wind  is  still  viewed  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  forces  of 
nature.  It  transports  objects  from  place  to  place  (Ezek.  5-  Isa.  41^'' 
5 y^"*  64'"-f'^  Zech.  5^  Ps.  i^  iS^-™  35').  It  tears  down  walls  (Ezek. 
j^iii-^  .  ^j^(j  dashes  into  pieces  the  ships  at  sea  (Ezek.  27-'^  Ps.  48'). 
Man  stands  in  awe  of  it  at  all  times  (Ps.  SS'"'-^-').  When  the  east  wind 
comes  with  scorching  heat  from  the  desert  it  withers  all  vegetation 
(Ezek.  17^°  i9^")>  This  powerful  wind  is  still  spoken  of  as  under  the 
direct  control  of  God.  When  he  manifests  himself  to  Ezekiel  it  is 
through  a  storm  wind  coming  out  of  the  north  (Ezek.  i'').  God  is 
also  pictured  as  riding  upon  the  wings  of  the  wind  (2  Sam.  22" 
[=  Ps.  18^'^"^])  ;  and  it  goes  forth  to  do  his  bidding  (Zech.  6'  Gen.  S^ 
[P]).  Because  of  its  invisibility,  it  is  used  as  the  symbol  of  empti- 
ness and  nothingness.  The  molten  images  are  characterized  as  vi^ind 
and  confusion  (Isa.  41-'^) ;  and  the  psalmist  says  that  God  had  com- 
passion upon  Israel  because  he  remembered  that  they  were  flesh,  a 
wind  that  passed  and  came  not  again  (Ps.  78^.  By  metonymy,  1711 
is  used  for  the  points  of  the  compass  —  the  directions  from  which 
the  wind  blows  (Ezek.  s^^^^  1721  42i6i7.i8.i9.2o^)_ 

^Literature:  Ezekiel;  Babylonian  Isaiah;  Zechariah,  ch.  1-8;  Haggai; 
Malachi;  H  and  P  of  the  Hexateuch;  Memoirs  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah;  and 
many  of  the  Psalms. 


24  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

ii)   To  denote  breath. 

The  first  certain  and  definite  instances  of  the  use  of  1111  for  breath 
occur  in  the  literature  of  this  period.  The  breath  is  viewed  as  a 
wind  from  the  mouth  similar  in  manifestation  to  the  wind  outside. 
Ezekiel  is  the  first  writer,  whose  writings  can  be  dated  with  any 
degree  of  certainty,  who  uses  the  word  in  this  sense.  In  his  vision 
of  the  valley  of  dry  bones  (Ezek.  37^"^°),  the  breath  of  life  which 
reanimated  the  dead  came  not  from  God  directly  but  from  the  four 
quarters  (four  winds,  Ezek.  37'-').  There  is  no  clear  evidence,  how- 
ever, that  he  identified  breath  with  wind,^  much  less  that  he  knew 
that  a  man  in  breathing  inhaled  and  exhaled  air  (or  wind).  Breath 
was  rather  the  permanent  possession  of  the  living  man.  Since  the 
breath  is  warm,  several  writers  of  this  period  speak  of  the  hot  desert 
wind  as  the  destructive  breath  of  God.  The  grass  withers  because 
the  breath  of  the  Lord  breathes  or  blows  upon  it  (Isa.  40^.  With  the 
breath  of  his  lips  he  will  slay  the  wicked  and  purge  Jerusalem  by 
the  breath  of  judgment  and  the  breath  of  burning  (Isa.  ii''  4'').  The 
breath  of  the  Lord  is  an  overflowing  stream  to  sift  the  nations  (Isa. 
30-^.^  By  the  breath  of  his  nostrils  the  waters  were  gathered 
together  (Exod.  15*  2  Sam.  22'"  [=  Ps.  iS^^*^*'']).  The  enemy  comes 
as  a  rushing  stream  which  the  breath  of  the  Lord  driveth  on  (Isa. 

The  breath  was  put  within  man  by  God  (Ezek.  37^''  Num.  16^^ 
27^®  Mai.  2^^),  and  during  life  it  is  under  his  immediate  protection 
(Ps.  31^'^''^;  cf.  143').  It  was  one  of  the  most  precious  possessions 
belonging  to  man  (Lam.  4^).  It  was  not,  however,  viewed  as  the 
bearer  of  his  personality.  This  was  the  function  of  the  soul  (trS3). 
Neither  during  life  nor  after  death  was  the  man  himself  in  any  way 
identified  with  his  spirit  or  breath.  The  spirit,  in  the  sense  of 
breath  or  life,  was  rather  the  possession  of  the  man  which  belonged 
to  him  while  he  was  alive.  Death  occurred  because  it  was  with- 
drawn from  him  (Gen.  6^.^      HTH  is  often  used  as  a  synonym  for 

6  On  the  correct  translation  of  ffl"!  in  the  passage,  see  Toy :  Ezekiel  (English 
Polychrome  Bible). 

■^  As  to  the  date  of  these  passages,  see  Cheyne :  Isaiah  (English  Polychrome 
Bible). 

8  This  difficult  passage  is  but  loosely  connected  with  its  context,  and  since  the 
last  clause  of  the  verse,  which  clearly  governs  the  meaning  to  be  applied  to  nil, 
is  most  probably  post-exilic,  we  have  classified  the  passage  in  this  period.  The 
present  Hebrew  text  is  so  corrupt  that  it  is  hard  to  determine  what  the  original 
meaning  was.  (On  the  text  and  interpretation  see  Dillmann:  Genesis,  and 
Mitchell:   The  World  before  Abraham,  ^1^.  \<j2-\^i,?) 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   nn   AND   OF  Trvcvfjua.  25 

nX2tt^3,  the  older  and  more  common  word  for  breath.  Thus  in  Gen. 
7~  (J),  a  passage  in  one  of  the  oldest  documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  a 
post-exilic  redactor  has  inserted  the  former  term  alongside  of  the 
latter.^  In  Isaiah  we  read  that  God  gives  breath  (nX2'C3)  to  the 
people  upon  the  earth,  and  life  (Hi"!)  to  them  that  walk  therein 
(Isa.42^;  cf.  57^V 

Since  breath  is  necessary  to  life,  by  metonymy  111*1  easily  comes 
to  stand  for  life  itself.  The  beginning  of  this  process  is  seen  in  such 
passages  as  Gen,  6^'  7^^  and  Num.  i6~  27^*^;  the  culmination,  in  such 
passages  as  Mai.  2^^'- ■^'' and  Ps.  31^''^'.  Though  the  term  is  ordinarily 
used  with  reference  to  man  alone,  yet  occasionally  it  is  used  also  of 
animals,  or  rather  of  man  and  animals  classified  as  a  single  group 
(Gen.  6^'  [P]  7^'  [PJ  ;  cf.  Isa.  za"'^. 

2.  The  use  of  Pin  for  spirit  in  this  period. 

a)  Spirit  of  God. 

This  meaning  occurs  very  often  in  the  prophetic  writings  of  the 
period,  but  very  seldom  in  the  priestly  writings.  In  fact,  this  usage 
of  the  term  might  be  called  a  prophetic  one.  Not,  however,  in  the 
sense  that  the  prophets  considered  themselves  the  sole  bearers  of  the 
spirit.  On  the  contrary  they  seldom  if  ever  make  any  exphcit  claim 
to  having  received  their  prophecies  through  the  mediation  of  the 
spirit.  Not  only  their  messages,  but  their  visions  as  well  were 
viewed  as  coming  directly  from  God.  The  most  striking  feature  in 
the  use  of  the  phrase  "  spirit  of  God "  during  this  time  was  the 
almost  complete  absence  of  the  ecstatic  from  its  realm.  According 
to  the  dominant  conception  of  the  period,  the  spirit  is  the  energizing, 
directing,  guiding,  and  enlightening  power  of  God.  The  realm  of  its 
operation  is  still  man,  but  no  longer  confined  to  the  individual. 
The  spirit  is  now  conceived  of  as  guiding  the  nation  as  well. 

(i)  The  spirit  is  first  of  all  the  energizing,  directing,  and  transport- 
ing poiuer  of  God.  —  This  is  the  common  usage  in  the  prophecies  of 
Ezekiel.  That  prophet  speaks  of  being  transported  from  place  to 
place  by  the  spirit.  The  spirit  sets  him  upon  his  feet  (Ezek.  2-  3-^), 
hfts  him  up  (Ezek.  3^-),  bears  him  away  (Ezek.  3")  to  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  (Ezek.  8^  11^43^)  or  to  the  captivity  in  Chaldea  (Ezek. 
11-^).  It  is  true  that  this  is  all  done  in  vision,  but  that  does  not 
affect  the  underlying  conception  of  the  function  of  the  spirit.  The 
vision  itself  is  not  attributed  to  the  spirit  but  to  the  hand  of  God 

^  See  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby :  The  Hexateuch,  Vol.  II,  p.  12. 
G  omits  rrn  in  translating. 


2  6  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

resting  upon  the  propliet  (Ezek.  i''  3--  S^  11-^).  The  messages 
which  the  prophet  receives  come  directly  from  God  (Ezek.  i-*  2'-^ 
3*---;  etc.).  Even  the  passages  which  seem  to  imply  that  the  spirit 
spoke  to  the  prophet  (Ezek.  3-'*  11^)  are  more  consistently  rendered 
by  making  God  the  speaker.'"  In  the  employment  of  the  term  to 
denote  the  physical  strength  imparted  by  God  to  man,  Ezekiel  is  in 
complete  harmony  with  the  older  usage.  The  only  point  in  which 
he  departs  from  that  terminology  is  in  employing  the  term  without 
the  limiting  phrase  "  of  God."  This  shows  that  the  meaning  of 
strength  and  power  had  become  so  closely  bound  up  with  the  term 
that  it  was  no  longer  necessary  to  say  "  spirit  of  God."  Spirit  alone 
meant  that.  (cf.  Ezek.  ir'-''  37'  with  Ezek.  2-  f^-^-^^  8=^  ii^  43^). 
But  the  spirit  was  not  only  the  power  of  God  that  energized  and 
transported  the  prophet.  It  was  likewise  the  energizing  and  direct- 
ing power  of  the  theophany  (Ezek.  ii^-^o.ai  ^^ly  ^\^^  ?>^\x\x.  impelled 
the  symbolic  creatures  and  the  wheels  to  go  whither  it  would.  It 
coordinated  and  directed  the  whole  complex  phenomenon. 

(2)  The  spirit  is  the  efilightening  and  directing  power  of  God  in 
such  men  as  are  called  of  him  to  perfonn  some  great  task.  —  There 
are  three  passages- in  the  priestly  writings  in  which  the  usage  of  HI"! 
lies  on  the  border  line  between  the  last  and  the  present  one.  In 
these  instances,  the  spirit  is  no  longer  viewed  as  imparting  to  men 
physical  strength  and  courage,  but  rather  technical  skill  and  knowl- 
edge. Thus  those  whom  the  Lord  has  filled  with  the  spirit  of 
wisdom  are  to  make  Aaron's  priestly  garments  (Exod.  28'^  [P]).  The 
Lord  filled  Bezaleel  with  the  spirit  of  God,  in  wisdom,  and  in  under- 
standing, and  in  knowledge,  and  in  all  manner  of  workmanship  in 
order  that  he  might  construct  the  tabernacle  and  its  furnishings 
(Exod.  31^  35^^  [P])'  This  usage  of  spirit  seems  to  be  confined  to 
the  skill  and  knowledge  required  by  men  to  construct  the  sacred 
articles  belonging  to  God's  worship,  and  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
extended  beyond  this. 

In  such  a  passage"  as  Isa.  11-,  in  which  the  ideal  king  is  pictured 
as  possessing  the  spirit  of  the  Lord,  we  reach  a  stage  still  higher. 
The  spirit  imparts  to  him  wisdom  and  understanding,  counsel  and 
might,  knowledge  and  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  so  that  he  will  not  judge 
after  the  sight  of  his  eyes,  neither  reprove  after  the  hearing  of  his 
ears  (Isa.  11-'').     Similarly,  the  Lord  will  be  for  a  spirit  of  judgment 

1°  See  Toy:  Ezekiel  (English  Polychrome  Bible),  on  these  passages. 
11  Probably  post-exilic  —  See  Cheyne :    Introduction  to  the    Book  of  Isaiah, 
pp.  62-64;   and  Cheyne:   Isaiah  (English  Polychrome  Bible),  p.  24. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE    USE    OF    nil    AND    OF    TTVevfia.  2  7 

to  those  who  sit  in  judgment  and  for  strength  to  those  who  turn  the 
battle  at  the  gate  (Isa.  28^.  The  Lord  will  put  his  spirit  upon  his 
servant,  and  then  he  will  bring  forth  judgment  to  the  Gentiles  (Isa. 
42').  The  spirit  of  the  Lord  God  is  upon  him  in  order  that  he  may 
preach  good  tidings  to  the  meek  and  proclaim  liberty  to  the  cap- 
tives (Isa.  61^).  The  spirit  accompanied  him  in  his  work  (Isa.  48'").^- 
According  to  a  priestly  writer,  it  is  because  Joshua  was  filled  with 
the  spirit  of  wisdom  that  he  became  the  leader  of  the  children  of 
Israel  (Num.  27'*  [F]  ;  Deut.  34'^  [P]).  Zerubbabel  is  to  accom- 
plish his  task  of  rebuilding  the  temple,  not  by  the  aid  of  an  army, 
but  by  the  help  of  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  (Zech.  4^)  ;  and  the  Psalm- 
ist cries  out,  "  Let  thy  good  spirit  lead  me  "  (Ps.  143^"). 

(3)  T//e  spirit  represents  God's  directing  and  protecting  pirsence 
with  the  people  of  Israel — not  as  individuals  but  as  a  nation. 

The  writers  of  this  period,  in  looking  back  upon  Israel's  wilderness 
journey,  never  tire  of  telling  how  God  through  his  spirit  was  present 
With  his  people,  hovering  over,  guiding,  and  prospering  them.  Such 
a  conception  of  the  function  of  the  spirit  could  hardly  have  arisen 
before  the  idea  of  the  transcendence  of  God  had  become  somewhat 
strongly  developed.  The  spirit  is  thus  the  medium  by  which  a  trans- 
cendent and  holy  God  comes  into  contact  with  a  wayward  and  sinful 
people.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not  strange  that  the  spirit 
itself  is  soon  looked  upon  as  holy  and  called  a  "spirit  of  holiness" 
(Ps.  51"^^''^  Isa.  63'"-^^).  It  cannot  abide  where  there  is  impurity  or 
rebelliousness.  Examples  of  this  new  and  general  function  of  the 
spirit  are  quite  numerous.  Ezekiel,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord  to  captive  Israel,  says,  "  I  will  no  longer  leave  any  of  them 
there,  nor  hide  my  face  from  them,  when  I  shall  have  poured  out  my 
spirit  on  the  house  of  Israel "  (Ezek.  39''').  This  is  the  reviving 
spoken  of  in  Ezek.  37",  when  the  Lord  promises  to  put  his  spirit  in 
their  midst  (cf.  36-^^  ■*).  According  to  Isaiah  the  Lord  promises  to 
pour  out  his  spirit  in  added  blessings  upon  Israel  and  its  posterity 
down  to  its  latest  descendants  (Isa.  44'^  59-^  63").  And  this,  too, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  had  resisted  the  guidance  of  his  spirit  of 
holiness  when  they  came  out  of  Egypt  (Isa.  63^"";  cf.  Ps.  106'^^. 
According  to  the  covenant  which  the  Lord  made  with  Israel  when 
the  people  came  out  of  Egypt,  his  spirit  has  remained  among  them 
(Hag.  2^).  It  corrected  and  instructed  them  in  their  wilderness 
journey  (Neh.  9^';  cf.  9*).      The  Psalmist  has  in  mind  this  all-em- 

12  The  word  "  spirit "  in  this  passage  is  possibly  a  gloss  —  See  Cheyne  :  Isaiah 
(English  Polychrome  Bible). 


28  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

bracing  presence  of  God  when  he  cries  out,  "Whither  can  I  go  from 
thy  spirit  and  whither  can  I  flee  from  thy  presence"?  (Ps.  139'). 
And,  if  the  51st  Psahn  is  a  community  psahn,  we  have  the  same 
thought  expressed  in  the  prayer,  "  Cast  me  not  away  from  thy  pres- 
ence and  take  not  thy  spirit  of  hohness  from  me  "  (Ps.  51"'^^-^^). 

These  examples  seem  to  make  it  perfectly  clear  that  the  spirit  was 
one  of  the  concepts  through  which:  the  omnipresence  and  imma- 
nence of  God  were  maintained  in  spite  of  the  growing  belief  in  his 
transcendence.  By  the  spirit,  God  could  be  present  everywhere 
operating  for  good  in  the  midst  of  his  people.  In  fact,  the  sphere 
of  his  operation  through  the  spirit  extended  even  farther  than  this, 
for  at  the  time  of  the  creation  his  creative  presence  was  manifested 
in  the  spirit  which  brooded  over  the  waters  (Gen.  i-  [P]  ;  cf.  Isa. 
40^'^).  In  none  of  these  examples  is  there  any  clear  evidence  of  a 
belief  in  the  separate  personality  of  the  spirit.  The  spirit  is  rather  a 
function  or  power  of  God,  —  the  means  or  medium  of  God's  opera- 
tion upon  man  and  nation. 

b)    n'1'1  used  f 01-  the  spirit  of  itian. 

{i)  As  in  the  former  periods,  PTH  is  used  of  anger,  lorath,  courage, 
etc.,  or  of  their  seat  or  source  in  man. 

Ezekiel  took  up  the  Lord's  work  in  the  fury  (rUpil  hot  anger)  of 
his  spirit  .(Ezek.  3").  The  spirit  (wrath)  of  Egypt  is  to  be  emptied 
out  in  the  midst  of  her  (Isa.  19''),  for  the  Lord  has  mingled  a  spirit 
of  perversities  within  her  (Isa.  19").  The  anger  (spirit)  of  the  ene- 
mies of  Israel  will  be  turned  against  themselves  and  burn  them  up  as 
a  fire  (Isa.  33").  The  Lord  will  cut  short  the  spirit  (anger)  of 
princes  (Ps.  76'-'^''^^).  For  shortness  of  spirit,  the  children  of  Israel  in 
bondage  hearkened  not  to  Moses  (Ex.  6'-'  [P]).  It  caused  Isaac  and 
Rebekah  bitterness  of  spirit  (made  them  angry)  that  Esau  married  a 
Canaanitish  woman  (Gen.  26^  [P]  ;  cf.  28^  [P]).  Even  of  the  Lord 
it  can  be  said  that  his  spirit  (anger)  is  quieted  (assuaged,  Zech.  6*). 
Anger  in  itself  was  not  regarded  as  blameworthy.  Its  legitimacy 
depended  entirely  upon  the  object  toward  which  it  was  directed.  A 
spirit  of  jealousy  (envy,  indignation)  was  sanctioned  by  the  Levitical 
law  in  such  extreme  cases  as  the  violation  of  the  marriage  vow  (Num. 

5'*-^[P])- 

Of  the  use  of  HI"!  as  the  seat  of  courage  or  of  its  lack  we  have 

several    examples.      The    tidings   of  the   destruction   of  Jerusalem 

would  make   every  spirit  of  the  land  faint   (feeble,   Ezek.   21''^'-^). 

Downcast  Israel  is  to  be  given  a  garment  of  praise  for  her  spirit  of 

heaviness  (Isa.  61''  54*^) ;    but  the  unfaithful  shall  wail  for  breaking  of 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   HI"!  AND   OF   irvcvfia.  29 

spirit  (Isa.  65").      Tlie  psalmists  in  the  midst  of  tlieir  afflictions  cry 
out  that  their  spirit  is  overwhehned  (Ps.  jf'^*^  142''^'^^  ^43^)- 

(2)  T/ie  spirit  as  the  seat  of  humility. 

This  usage  of  nil  grows  naturally  out  of  the  preceding.  Already, 
from  the  earliest  period  down,  the  spirit  was  viewed  as  the  seat  of 
pride  and  opposition  to  God  as  well  as  the  seat  of  depression  and 
sadness,  but  it  was  left  for  this  period  to  erect  humility  the  suppres- 
sion of  pride  and  stubbornness  into  a  religious  and  moral  virtue  and 
to  attach  it  to  the  spirit.  Since  pride  and  stubbornness  were  also 
attributed  to  the  heart,  it  was  only  natural  that  humility  should  be 
referred  to  the  one  as  well  as  to  the  other.  The  sacrifices  of  God 
are  a  broken  spirit ;  a  broken  and  a  crushed  heart  the  Lord  will  not 
despise  (Ps.  51^''^'"^).  He  is  nigh  unto  them  that  are  of  a  broken 
heart  and  saves  such  as  are  of  a  contrite  spirit  (Ps.  34^^).  He  dwells 
with  those  of  a  contrite  and  a  humble  spirit,  in  order  to  revive  the 
spirit  of  the  humble  and  the  heart  of  the  contrite  (Isa.  57^'  66"). 

(3)  The  hiatian  spirit  as  the  energizing  and  directing  power  or 
faculty  in  man. 

This  meaning  is  so  clearly  a  correlate  of  the  similar  function  of  the 
spirit  of  God  that  we  have  not  far  to  seek  for  the  origin  of  the  usage. 
As  the  spirit  of  God  is  the  directing  and  energizing  power  of  God 
imparted  to  certain  men  in  their  divinely  appointed  tasks,  so  the 
spirit  of  man  guides  and  impels  him  in  his  conduct  toward  God. 
The  two  usages  seem  to  have  grown  up  side  by  side.  The  modern 
term  which  most  nearly  expresses  this  new  meaning  for  the  human 
spirit  is  iviil.  However,  since  the  latter  term  carries  with  it  so  many 
meanings  and  associations  not  contained  in  the  former,  it  will  be  bet- 
ter not  to  adopt  it.  To  translate  HTH  by  mind  (Ezek.  20'^-  A.V.  and 
R.V.)  would  be  still  farther  afield.  The  Hebrew  term  "  heart "  comes 
nearer  to  our  term  "  mind  "  (in  the  broad  sense  of  feelings,  intellect, 
and  will),  since  the  former  covers  mental  phenomena  of  fully  as  wide 
a  range  as  the  latter.  The  Hebrew  words  "heart"  (3*]?)  and  "spirit" 
(nn  in  this  new  sense)  bear  much  the  same  relation  to  each  other 
as  our  words  "  mind  "  and  "  will."  In  fact  the  two  are  often  used  in 
parallel  lines  or  in  synonymous  phrases  (Ezek.  11^^  18''  36'-"  Isa.  57'^ 

Ps.    34l8   5il0C12].17[19]    ^g8)_ 

That  the  use  of  Hl'l  to  denote  the  energizing  and  directing  power 
or  faculty  in  man  grew  out  of  the  corresponding  function  of  the  spirit 
of  God  is  confirmed  by  certain  passages  in  Ezekiel.  In  Ezek.  13'',  it 
is  said  that  the  false  prophets  walk  after  their  own  spirit  and  have 
seen  nothing,  implying  that  they  follow  their  own  purposes  and  incli- 


3C  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

nations  rather  than  those  of  the  spirit  of  God.  In  Ezek.  36-"-^,  after 
speaking  of  the  new  spirit  of  obedience  which  Israel  is  to  receive 
and  which  clearly  refers  to  the  human  spirit  (cf.  Ezek.  ii^'*  18^^),  the 
prophet  glides  over  very  easily  to  the  corresponding  function  of  the 
divine  spirit,  and  tells  them  that  God  will  put  his  spirit  within  them 
and  thus  cause  them  to  walk  in  his  statutes.  With  Ezekiel  the 
human  spirit  is  also  the  seat  and  source  of  plans  and  purposes. 
When  Israel  purposed  in  their  spirit  to  worship  idols  as  the  heathen 
did  (Ezek.  20^^^),  God  knew  all  about  it  and  frustrated  their  plans. 
Likewise  he  knew  the  plans  of  the  war  party  in  Jerusalem  (Ezek, 
1 1^)  and  threatened  to  bring  forth  their  leaders  to  be  slain  outside 
the  cityj  This  planning  and  purposing  function  of  the  human  spirit 
is  the  highest  point  of  the  development  in  the  Old  Testament  usage 
of  the  term.  No  other  writer  seems  to  go  beyond  Ezekiel  in  this 
line.  It  is  with  his  spirit  that  a  man  keeps  his  attention  fixed  upon 
God  and  remains  steadfast  and  faithful  in  his  service.  One  psalmist 
warns  Israel  not  to  become  as  their  fathers,  who  were  not  faithful  in 
their  spirit  to  God  (Ps.  78^) ;  and  another  prays  that  he  may  have  a 
steadfast  spirit  renewed  within  him  (Ps.  5ii''ti2].  (,f_  78"').  He  asks 
that  a  willing  (ready)  spirit  to  do  His  will  may  be  given  to  him  (Ps. 
^ji2[i4].  ^^^  Exod.  35^^  [P])-  Haggai  says  that  the  Lord  stirred  up 
(made  willing)  the  spirit  of  Zerubbabel  and  of  Joshua  and  of  all  the 
people  to  go  on  with  the  construction  of  the  temple  (Haggai  i"). 
To  wander  away  from  God  in  one's  spirit  (Isa.  29-^)  is  considered 
one  of  the  greatest  follies  ;  and  a  psalmist  says,  "  Blessed  is  the  man 
in  whose  spirit  there  is  no  deceit"  (Ps.  32-;  cf.  Hos.  7^^  on  the  word 
"  deceit  "),  i.e.  the  man  upon  whom  God  can  depend. 

IV.  T/ie  Use  of  HII  hi  the  Later  Persian  and  the  Greek 
Periods,  datijig  from  about  400  B.C.  to  Maccabean 
Times  }^ 

I.    rt'n  used  to  denote  wind  and  breathe 

a)  For  wind. 

As  in  the  three  former  periods  this  powerful  agency  is  still  viewed 
as  under  the  direct  control  of  God.  He  created  it  (Amos  4'^),  and 
brings  it  forth  out  of  his  treasures  (Jer.  lo^''  51^®  Ps.  135^).  It  is  his 
messenger  and  he  rides  upon  its  wings  (Ps.  i04''-*).  He  raises  the 
storm  wind  (Ps.  107^  147^*  Jonah  1*4^  Jer.  51'),  and  it  fulfils  his 

^^  Literature :  Joel,  Jonah,  Job,  Proverbs,  Chronicles,  Ecclesiastes,  Daniel 
certain   Psahns,  and  the  later  additions  to  the  prophets. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE    USE   OF   ri)"^   AND    OF   Trvivfxa.  3 1 

will  (Ps.  148*  Isa.  ii'''  27").  It  is  even  more  mysterious  than  before 
(Eccles.  1"  11''^).  It  can  penetrate  the  smallest  crevice  (Job  41^'''^*'). 
No  one  can  retain  it  (Eccles.  8**  Prov.  27'*'),  except  God  who  holds  it 
in  his  fists  (Prov.  30^).  It  is  his  wind  (Job  26'^) ; "  and  he  gave  it 
its  force  (Job  28-').  It  transports  the  stubble  (Job  21'*  Ps.  83'"'^"i) 
and  the  chaff  (Job  30'^  Dan.  2''^)  and  brings  the  clouds  and  the  rain 
(Job  37-^  Prov.  25"-'^).  It  overturns  houses  (Job  1'")  and  destroys 
life  (Job  30"  Jer.  51^  Isa.  32-  Ps.  58'''^'"^).  It  lashes  the  sea  into 
waves  (Dan.  7-),  and  causes  the  fruit  tree  to  cast  her  fruit  before  its 
season  (Job  15"''**,  see  emended  text  by  Budde  and  Duhm).  The  hot 
wind  from  the  desert  dries  up  the  grass  of  the  field  (Ps.  103'®),  and 
is  a  fit  symbol  of  the  torments  which  befall  the  wicked  (Ps.  1 1"). 

As  in  the  former  periods,  HH  is  also  used  by  metonymy  for  the 
points  of  the  compass,  the  directions  from  which  the  wind  blows 
(i  Chron.  9^*  Dan.  8®  11*  Jer.  52^).  But  in  this  period  more  than  in 
any  other,  the  wind,  because  of  its  invisibility  and  intangibility,  is 
used  as  a  symbol  of  nothingness,  emptiness,  folly,  and  vanity.  This 
usage  is  especially  marked  in  such  wisdom  books  as  Job  and  Ecclesi- 
astes.  Job  bewails  his  fate  and  cries  out  that  his  life  is  wind  (Job 
7').  The  words  of  his  friends  are  wind  to  him,  and  his  in  turn  are 
wind  to  them  (Job  6"*^  8-  15-  16''  20'^).  The  writer  of  Ecclesiastes, 
in  his  pessimism,  characterizes  everything  as  "striving  for  wind" 
(Eccles.  i"-^'  2"- ^"- 2*^  4"'- "^^ ^*'),  and  asks  sneeringly  what  profit  a  man 
has  who  labors  for  the  wind  (Eccles.  5'"'-^'^).  One  of  the  proverbs 
affirms  that  he  who  troubles  his  own  house  shall  possess  the  wind 
(Prov.  11^.  See  Toy  :  Proverbs)  ;  and  the  writer  of  Isa.  26^^  com- 
plains that  Israel  has  brought  forth  nothing  but  wind. 

b)  For  breath. 

In  Job  4",  it  is  said  that  the  wicked  perish  by  the  breath  (.1X2^3) 
of  God,  and  are  consumed  by  the  breath  (ni"!)  of  his  nostrils.  The 
common  interpretation  of  this  passage  makes  the  warm  breath  a 
symbol  of  God's  anger.  The  writer,  however,  may  have  had  in  mind 
the  destructive  east  wind  from  the  desert  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  sometimes  referred  to  as  God's  breath.  In  a  Maccabean  psalm, 
breath  seems  to  be  used  by  metonymy  for  the  word  spoken  by 
means  of  the  breath  or  mouth  (Ps.  33*^).'^ 

Breath  is  looked  upon  as  necessary  to  life,  and  more  often  than  in 
the  former  period  stands  for  life  itself.  The  breath  of  man  and  beast 
alike  came  from  God   (Ps.    104*^  Job   27^  32*  33^  Eccles.  3'^  Zech. 

^*  See  Commentaries  of  Davidson,  Duhm,  and  Budde  on  this  passage. 
^^  Cf.  Prov.  i-'^  where  G  translates  HI"!  by  -kvot). 


32  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

12'),  not  simply  at  the  time  of  the  original  creation  but  in  the  case 
of  each  new  individual.  At  death  the  breath  returns  to  God  who 
gave  it  (Ps.  104*''  146''  Job  34"  Eccles.  3-'  12')^".  Idols  do  not  live 
and  move  because  there  is  no  breath  in  them  (Hab.  2^*  Jer.  10"  51^'' 
Ps.  135^',  all  late  passages).  Men  live  as  long  as  they  retain  their 
breath  (Job  10^-  27'^),  and  die  when  it  departs  from  them  (Job  17^). 
Even  during  life  it  is  under  God's  protecting  care  (Job  10^-  12^** 
Isa.  38^'',  Song  of  Hezekiah).  The  first  clear  reference  to  respiration 
is  found  in  the  Book  of  Job.  Job  complains  that  the  Lord  will  not 
permit  him  to  take  his  breath  (Job  9^^ ;  cf.  Job  32^^,  see  Duhm),  and 
that  his  breath  is' loathsome  to  his  wife  (Job  19^^). 

There  seems  to  be  little  evidence  in  any  of  these  passages  that  the 
spirit  (breath)  of  man  was  regarded  as  the  bearer  of  his  personality. 
It  was  rather  looked  upon  as  a  gift  from  God  to  be  possessed  by  the 
man  during  his  lifetime.  At  death  the  Lord  withdrew  it  and  the 
man  departed  to  Sheol.^' 

2.    nil  used  to  denote  spirit. 

a)  Spirit  of  God. 

The  literature  of  this  period  has  no  new  contribution  to  make  to 
the  conception  and  use  of  the  phrase  "  spirit  of  God."  In  fact  the 
high-water  mark  attained  in  the  last  period  is  no  longer  maintained 
in  this.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  prophecy  has  disappeared 
(Zech.  13"^),  and  along  with  it  the  peculiar  concepts  and  terms  in 
which  it  had  expressed  itself.  The  phrase,  "  spirit  of  God,"  is  not 
found  in  any  of  the  wisdom  books,  Job,  Proverbs,  Canticles,  or 
Ecclesiastes,  and  in  those  writings  where  it  is  still  employed  it  is 
often  connected  with  persons  long  since  dead,  or  is  made  the  hope 
of  the  glorious  future.  The  priest  and  the  sage  found  little  need  for 
personal  revelations  through  the  spirit  of  God.  For  the  former,  the 
written  law  was  a  sufficient  guide  of  conduct  and  worship ;  and  for 
the  latter,  the  human  understanding  was  adequate  to  cope  with  the 
practical  precepts  and  problems  of  life.  Hence  once  more  the  con- 
cept of  the  spirit  of  God  falls  into  the  background,  but  for  another 
reason  than  that  which  produced  the  same  result  in  the  Deutero- 
nomic  period.  However,  as  in  that  case  so  also  now  the  surviving 
usage  is  well  worth  study,  for  it  is  the  link  which  binds  a  glorious 
past  to  a  more  glorious  future. 

^^  On  the  latter  passage  see  Schwally,  Das  Lebe7t  iiach  dem  Tode,  p.  87  ff.  In 
Eccles.  3"^i,  the  writer  raises  the  question  as  to  whether  the  breath  of  man  really 
does  ascend,  i  e.  return  to  God. 

1'  See  Schwally,  I.e.,  p.  87  ff. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE   USE   OF   nil   AND   OF   Trvevfjua.  33 

( I )    77/ (f  prophetic  function  of  the  spirit  of  God. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  passages,  if  it  really  dates  from  this 
period,  is  found  in  the  Book  of  Joel  (Joel  2-*--'  [3'"]).  The  prophet 
in  picturing  the  glorious  future  says  God  will  pour  out  His  spirit  upon 
all  Israel :  their  sons  and  daughters  shall  prophesy  ;  their  old  men 
shall  dream  dreams,  and  their  young  men  see  visions  \  and  even 
upon  the  servants  and  the  handmaids  will  He  pour  out  His  spirit. 
The  function  assigned  to  the  spirit  in  this  passage  reminds  us  some- 
what of  the  old  ecstatic  view  of  prophecy.  However,  that  is  not  the 
point  of  greatest  interest  for  our  present  purpose.  This  lies  rather 
in  the  universality  of  the  bestowal  of  the  spirit.  The  spirit  is  to 
become  the  personal  possession  of  every  true  Israelite.  This  passage 
shows  that  even  though  the  spirit  hovered  over  and  directed  the 
people  of  Israel  as  a  nation,  that  did  not  imply  that  the  individuals 
as  such  participated  in  it  in  a  personal  way.  That  still  remained  the 
privilege  of  the  chosen  few.  The  extension  of  the  privilege  to  the 
many  was  not  expected  to  occur  until  the  Messianic  age.  In  general, 
the  conception  of  the  function  of  the  spirit  grew  more  definite  and 
stereotyped  during  this  period.  The  spirit  no  longer  simply  brought 
the  prophet  into  a  state  in  which  he  was  capable  of  receiving 
messages  from  God ;  rather,  the  spirit  was  now  regarded  as  the 
medium  through  which  tlie  message  was  brought.  Thus  a  late  poetic 
writer  makes  David  say  that  the  spirit  spoke  to  him  (2  Sam.  23-) ; 
and  the  chronicler  affirms  that  he  (David)  learned  the  dimensions 
of  the  temple  through  the  spirit  (i  Chron.  28'-).  The  chronicler 
repeatedly  sets  forth  the  message-bearing  function  of  the  spirit 
(i  Chron.  12^^  2  Chron.  15^  20"  24^),  though  in  so  doing  he  is  biased 
by  the  mode  of  expression  of  the  older  writers  (cf.  his  use  of  t^5^ 
with  Judg.  e^) . 

Another  usage  which  is  also  reflected  in  the  older  literature  is  found 
in  the  Aramaic  portion  of  Daniel.  Here  the  spirit  bestows  upon  the 
man  who  possesses  it  the   ability  to    interpret  dreams   (Dan.  4*'^^^- 

9[ti].    1S[13];    c"  12.  H-,    5-l[4]  \ 

(2)  The  spirit  as  the  helpful  presence  of  God  with  his  people 
Israel. 

This  usage,  which  was  rather  common  in  the  last  period,  occurs 
but  rarely  in  this  period.  In  Zechariah  (12^")  we  read  that  God  will 
pour  out  upon  Israel  the  spirit  of  grace  and  supplication  ;  and  in 
Isaiah  (32^^)  that  the  wilderness  will  become  a  land  of  gardens  for 
them  when  the  spirit  is  poured  out  from  on  high. 


34  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

d)    The  human  spirit. 

(i)  ni"1  for  anger,  wrath,  courage,  stubbornness,  pride,  etc.,  or 
for  their  seat  or  source. 

Job's  friends  accuse  him  of  turning  his  spirit  (anger,  fury) 
against  God  (Job  15^^)  ;  but  he  justifies  himself  by  asking  why 
his  spirit  should  not  be  impatient  (shortened  "l^p  Job  21*;  cf. 
Prov.  14-^).  It  drinks  up  the  poison  (H^n  inflaming,  wrath- 
producing)  of  the  arrows  of  the  Almighty  (Job  6'*).  In  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  this  usage  occurs  several  times.  He  that  rules  his  spirit 
is  better  than  he  that  takes  a  city  (Prov.  16'^';  cf  25-*).  A  fool 
utters  all  his  spirit  (Prov.  29^^)  ;  but  one  of  a  cool  spirit  is  a  man  of 
understanding  (Prov.  ly"')-  The  Lord  stirs  up  the  spirit  (anger) 
of  the  kings  of  the  Medes  (Jer.  51")  and  of  Pul  and  Tilgath-pilneser 
(i  Chron.  5^).  It  is  even  said  that  he  stirred  up  the  spirit  of  the 
Philistines  and  of  the  Arabians  against  Jehoram  (2  Chron.  21^''). 
Akin  to  anger  is  stubbornness,  haughtiness,  and  pride  especially 
when  directed  toward  God.  Nebuchadnezzar  was  deposed  from  his 
kingly  throne  because  his  heart  was  lifted  up  and  his  spirit  was  strong 
to  deal  proudly  (Dan.  5^  Aramaic).  And  one  of  the  proverbs  says 
that  pride  goes  before  destruction  and  a  haughty  spirit  before  a  fall 
(Prov.  16^^). 

As  the  seat  of  courage  or  of  depression,  anguish,  and  distress,  there 
are  several  examples.  Job  complains  of  the  anguish  (1^)  of  his 
spirit  (Job  7").  The  spirit  is  often  said  to  be  crushed  ("12^  Prov. 
15*;  cf.  Isa.  65")  and  smitten  down  (S?5  Prov.  i^^^  if-  18"). 
Nebuchadnezzar's  spirit  was  troubled  (D>S)  when  he  could  not 
discover  the  meaning  of  his  dream  (Dan.  2^-'')  ;  and  Daniel  was 
troubled  (K*13)  in  spirit  when  he  could  not  understand  the  visions 
that  were  given  to  him  (Dan.  7^  Aramaic). 

(2)  The  seat  of  humility. 

When  the  man  who  is  poor  and  crushed  down  in  spirit  preserves 
his  faith  and  hope  in  God,  this  state  of  mind  is  acceptable  to  the 
Lord.  It  is  better  to  be  of  an  humble  (T'StT)  spirit  with  the  lowly, 
than  to  divide  the  spoil  with  the  proud  (Prov.  16'^).  A  man's  pride 
shall  bring  him  low ;  but  honor  shall  uphold  the  humble  in  spirit 
(Prov.  29^). 

(3)  The  directing  power  in  conduct  {especially  conduct  toward 
God)  or  the  seat  of  steadfastness,  purpose,  and  motive.  —  All  tlie  ways 
of  a  man  are  pure  in  his  own  eyes,  but  the  Lord  is  the  weigher  of 
spirits  (purposes  and  motives.  Prov.  16- ;  cf.  21-  24^-  where  heart  is 
used).     A  talebearer  reveals  secrets,  but  he  that  is  faithful  (steadfast 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   HI"!   AND   OF  TTVEVfia.  35 

fpSt)  in  spirit  conceals  a  matter  (Prov.  ii^'^.  The  Lord  stirred  up 
the  spirit  of  Cyrus  (2  Chron.  36"  [  =  Ezra  1^]),  and  of  all  those  whom 
He  desired  to  build  the  temple  (Ezra  i'). 


Part   II. 


THE  USE  OF  nceO^ais  IN  THE  CLASSICAL  WRITINGS,  THE  SEPTU- 
AGINT,  THE  APOCRYPHA,  PHILO,  JOSEPHUS,  AND  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT. 

In  order  to  define  the  Greek  term  Tlvev/xa  as  it  is  used  in  the  New 
Testament,  it  is  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  determine  from  a  careful 
study  of  its  use  in  other  writings  the  range  of  possible  meanings 
which  may  be  applied  to  it.  As  material  for  such  a  study  we  have 
the  classical  authors,  the  Septuagint  translation  of  the  Canonical  Old 
Testament  Scriptures,  the  Apocrypha,  Pseud epigrapha,  and  the 
writings  of  Philo  and  Josephus. 

I.    T/^e  Use  of  nyei)/x.a  in  the  Classical  Writings. 

TivivjjM.  in  the  classical  authors  has  but  two  meanings  —  wind  and 
breath.  The  term  is  not  found  in  Homer,  nor  in  any  writer  prior 
to  Aeschylus.  In  later  writers  the  word  is  quite  common.  It  is  im- 
possible to  determine  from  the  usage  which  of  the  two  meanings  is 
the  older.  Aeschylus  employs  the  word  about  as  often  for  wind  as 
for  breath,  though  in  succeeding  writers  the  preponderance  is  often 
strongly  in  favor  of  wind.^^  In  none  of  these  writers  does  the  term 
seem  to  be  used  in  any  other  sense  than  the  two  named.'-'^  When 
used  for  wind  it  denotes  either  a  zephyr  (Aesch.  :  Sept.  708  ;  Soph.  : 
Ajax  674  and  558)   or  a  storm    (Aesch.:  Prom.  1047;  Pers.  no; 

18  The  Greek  word  which  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  term  nn. 

1^  An  examination  of  the  instances  given  in  concordances  and  indexes  yields 
the  following  figures  for  wind  and  breath,  respectively:  Aeschylus  6  and  5; 
Herodotus  i  and  o;  Sophocles  9  and  o;  Euripides  12  and  12;  Thucydides  8 
and  I  ;  Aristophanes  4  and  o ;  Xenophon  6  and  i  ;  Plato  22  and  5  ;  Aristotle 
183  and  124. 

-0  Plato,  Axiochus  37  C  (quoted  in  lexicons)  is  only  an  apparent  exception. 
In  the  first  place,  the  book  in  which  it  is  found  belongs  among  the  spurious 
writings  of  Plato,  and  in  the  second  place  7r;'eC^a  iu  the  passage  probably  means 
divine  breath. 


36  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

Sitppl.  165  and  175  ;  Soph.  :  Philoc.  1093  ;  Eurip. :  Her.  F  216  ;  /<?«. 
1507;  Helena  413;  Herodotus  7,  16,  i).  Plato  defines  irvev/xa  as 
air  in  motion  {Crafy/us  410  B).  When  Trvevfxa  refers  to  breath  it 
often  denotes  simply  the  breath  of  respiration  without  any  reference 
to  life  (Aesch.  :  SepA  464 ;  Eurip.:  Orest.  277;  Fhoen.  d>'^S ;  Med. 
1 119;  Thucyd. :  II.  49 [23];  Xen. :  Cyneget.  f" ;  Plato:  Tim.  gi  C  ; 
Phileb.  47  A).  Many  times,  however,  emphasis  is  placed  on  its 
necessity  to  life  (Aesch.  :  Pers.  507  ;  Sept.  981  ;  Eurip.  :  Hecuba  571  ; 
Orest.  864  ;  Troad.  751  ;  Plato  :  Leg.  IX.  865  B).  When  the  breath 
leaves  the  body  death  ensues.  In  no  case  do  these  Greek  writers 
make  of  irvevfia  a  psychological  term.  With  them  it  was  a  purely 
physical  term.  That  wind  and  breath  continued  to  be  the  only 
meanings  of  Trvevjxa  in  common  use  among  Greek-speaking  Gentiles 
up  to  the  first  century  a.d.,  is  evident  on  at  least  two  grounds  : 
(i)  The  lack  of  examples  of  any  other  usage  in  the  surviving  litera- 
ture from  that  period.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  Stoics  who  maintained 
that  God  was  spirit  (TrvevfMa),  spirit  was  identified  with  the  all-pervad- 
ing air  or  at  least  was  conceived  as  airlike. -^  (2)  Philo  and 
Josephus  (Jewish  authors  who  wrote  for  Gentile  readers)  customarily 
use  the  term  only  in  these  two  senses.  When  biblical  usage  compels 
them  to  depart  from  these  ordinary  meanings,  they  are  usually  careful 
to  explain  the  new  meaning  attached  to  the  term. 

II.    T/te  Use  of  Uvevfia  in  the  ^'  Septitagint''  Translation  of 
the  Canonical  Scriptures. 

The  translators  show  a  strong  tendency  to  render  ffll  by  Trvei'/xa, 
and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  former  term  had  a  much  wider 
range  of  meanings  than  the  latter.  The  term  Trvtvjxa  covered  only 
the  meanings  wind  and  breath  ;  but  since  there  was  no  Greek  word  to 
correspond  to  the  Hebrew  concept  "spirit  of  God,"  it  seemed 
natural  to  widen  the  use  of  the  term  to  include  this  also. 

I.    The  use  of  ir-vevfjua.  for  wind  and  breath. 

a)   For  wind. 

When  it  was  perfectly  clear  to  the  translator  that,  in  any  particular 
case  HTH  denoted  wind,  there  was  a  strong  tendency  to  translate  it 
by  ave/Aos  rather  than  by  Trvei'/xa.  This  occurs  about  forty  times,  or 
more  than  one-third  the  total  number  of  times  that  ffl"!  is  used  for 
wind.    There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  real  distinction  in  the  meaning 

21  For  a  discussion  of  this  usage,  together  with  examples,  see  Drummond, 
Philo  Judaeus,  Vol.  I.  pp.  85-87. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   Itn   AND   OF   irv€v/xa.  37 

of  ave/xos  and  Trvevjxa  when  applied  to  wind.  If  the  terms  are  not 
identical,  they  are  at  least  closely  synonymous.  There  are  a  few  cases 
in  which  the  translators  so  change  the  sense  of  the  expression  as  to 
obviate  the  use  of  either  term  (Isa.  41^'*  Jar.  lo^'^  49^^  51^*^)' 

^)    For  breath. 

When  nn  denotes  breath  it  is  almost  always  translated  by  TrveS/xa. 
There  are  a  it^^  cases  in  which  it  is  translated  by  ttvoi/  (Isa.  38^*^ 
Ezek.  13^'^  Prov.  i^),  but  outside  these  there  is  scarcely  a  variation. 
Sometimes  nX2tI^3  the  other  Hebrew  word  for  breath,  is  also  trans- 
lated by  TTvevfm  (i  Kings  17^^  Dan.  5-^  [Theod.  uses  irvorj]).  This 
shows  how  fixed  was  the  meaning  breath  for  Trvevfj.a.  In  one  instance 
(Job  7^"^)  the  soul  (i/'i'X'/)  is  said  by  the  translators  to  reside  in  the 

breath   (7rve?/xa) . 

2.    27ie  use  of  -nvevfia  for  spirit. 

a)   Spirit  of  God. 

Since  the  Greeks  had  nothing  that  corresponded  to  this  Hebrew 
concept,  it  is  not  strange  that  they  lacked  a  terminology  to  express  it. 
Hence  it  was  only  natural  that  the  translators  should  extend  the  term 
used  for  wind  and  breath  (7rveV|ita)  to  cover  this  meaning  also.  And 
this  they  did  quite  uniformly.  There  seems  to  be  the  same  general 
conception  of  the  nature  and  function  of  the  spirit  that  the  Hebrew 
writers  had.  Separate  personality  was  not  ascribed  to  it.  It  was 
simply  an  attribute  or  power  of  God. 

F)    For  non-embodied  personal  spirits,  good  and  bad. 

This  usage  seems  to  have  grown  up,  in  part  at  least,  out  of  a  mis- 
interpretation of  the  old  Hebrew  conception  of  the  function  of  the 
spirit  of  God.  To  the  translators,  the  spirit  of  God  was  so  holy  that 
nothing  which  savored  of  evil  could  be  attributed  to  it.  Hence  when 
they  came  to  such  a  passage  as  i  Sam.  16^'''-'',  there  was  no  way  but 
to  render  "  the  spirit  of  God  (for)  evil  "  by  the  phrase  "  evil  spirit  " 
(i  Sam.  \Q^'^^^.  Likewise  the  spirit  which  deceived  Ahab  through 
his  prophets  is  called  simply  a  spirit  (i  Kings  22-^  note  the  omission 
of  the  article  in  G),  as  if  it  were  one  among  many  spirits  surround- 
ing the  throne  of  God.  As  a  further  evidence  that  the  host  of  angels 
which  surround  the  throne  of  God  were  called  spirits  iirvvoitjaro) 
by  the  translators,  we  have  their  rendering  of  Num.  16"  and  27^". 
For  the  Hebrew  "  God  of  the  spirits  (breath)  of  all  flesh,"  the  LXX. 
have  "God  of  the  spirits  and  of  all  flesh." ^-  Hll  in  the  former 
referred  to  the  breath  or  lives  of  men  ;  Trvevyoara  in  the  latter  most 

22  Philo  quotes  this  passage  in  the  same  form:  Post.  Caini.  19;  Agri.  N^oe,  ID. 


38  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

likely  to  the  unembodied  spirits  who  act  as  God's  messengers.  In 
Ethiopia  Enoch,  the  phrase  "  Lord  of  spirits  "  is  used  instead  of 
"  Lord  of  hosts  "  more  than  a  hundred  times.-^  The  translators  do 
not  seem  to  use  nvevfia  to  denote  a  disembodied  human  spirit. 

c)  For  spirit,  when  it  denotes  physical  strength,  coin-age,  atiger,  or 
the  seat  of  pride,  depression,  humility,  etc. 

There  is  more  variation  in  the  translation  of  ll'i"!  in  this  usage  than 
in  any  other.  Only  about  half  of  the  passages  in  which  this  sense  of 
nil  occurs  are  translated  by  irvevfxa.  This  might  have  been  expected 
since  we  saw  above  that,  among  Greek-speaking  Gentiles,  such  a  use 
of  TTvev/xa  does  not  occur.  They  did  not  use  the  term  in  a  psycho- 
logical sense.  To  obviate  its  use  in  this  sense,  the  translators  resorted 
to  several  expedients.  They  sometimes  used  i/'v^v,  or  some  form  of 
this  word  (Gen.  41*  Ex.  6^  35-'  Prov.  14-'^  Isa.  54")  ;  or  more  often, 
where  the  word  denoted  anger,  some  form  of  the  word  Ov/xoi 
(Prov.  i6^3-2-  I^^  18"  29"  Eccles.  f-"  Zech.  6'  Isa.  57^^  Ezek.  39"-'). 
More  frequently,  however,  they  substituted  a  different  expression  for 
the  Hebrew  phrase  and  thus  avoided  a  direct  translation  of  the 
word.-^  So  uniformly  did  the  translator  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  use 
these  and  other  expedients  that  only  once  (Prov.  15'*)  out  of  twenty 
times,  and  then  in  consequence  of  a  misconception  of  the  meaning 
of  the  passage,  does  he  render  ni"l  by  irvevixa. 

III.      T/ie  use  of  ITyeO/Lta   {71   the  Apocrypha  and  the  Greek 
portions  of  the  Pscudepigrapha. 

In  general  the  usage  of  vrvevfjia  in  these  writings  is  the  same  as  that 
in  the  Greek  translation  of  the  canonical  books  already  considered. 
There  is  some  difference,  however,  between  its  use  in  those  books 
which  are  merely  translations  of  some  Hebrew  original,-^  and  in  those 
which  were  composed  originally  in  the  Greek  in  non-Palestinian 
countries."'"'  Of  course  for  the  determination  of  the  ordinary  usage 
of  a  Greek  term,  the  latter  class  of  literature  is  far  more  important 
than  the  former.     A  translator  is  sometimes  impelled  to  use  a  certain 

2^  Cf.  Enoch  39I-  ^o^-^^  46^"^  etc.  Charles,  Boo/c  of  Enoch,  p.  no  note,  enu- 
merates 104  instances  of  this  usage. 

2*  Gen.  26^5  Josh.  5I  i  Sam.  i^^  I  Kings  10"'  [=2  Chron.  9*]  2  Chron.  211° 
JoIt  6*  7II  Ps.  31  [32]^  Prov.  15I3  i6--i8  Prov.  17^2  25-^  29-^  Isa.  66-  Ezek.  13^. 

25  Wisdom  of  Sirach,  Judith,  Tobit,  I  Maccabees,  i  Esdras,  Baruch,  Psalms  of 
Solomon,  Enoch,  etc. 

26  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth 
Maccabees. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   Pin   AND   OF   Trvev/Aa.  39 

term,  when  an  author  would  express  the  thought  in  some  other  way 
or  by  the  use  of  some  other  term. 

1.  Ilvi-vixa  used  of  wind  and  breath. 

a)  Of  7uind. 

There  are  several  passages  in  which  this  meaning  of  the  word  occurs, 
both  in  the  translated  books  (Sir.  39-^  43^^  Song  of  the  Three 
Children  27,  43  [=  Dan.  3^"'""])  and  in  those  composed  in  Greek 
(Wisdom  5"- -3  7-"  11-"  13-  17'*  Epistle  of  Jer.  61  [60]).  These 
writers  still  emphasize  the  power  of  the  wind,  especially  its  destructive 
power  (Sir.  39-*  Wisdom  5^  7-"  11^'),  and  affirm  that  it  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Lord  (Sir.  43^'^) . 

b)  Of  breath. 

There  are  illustrations  of  this  usage  in  almost  every  book  of  the 
Apocrypha,  both  in  the  translated  books  (Sir.  38-''  Judith  10'^  14" 
16'^  Esther  8"^  [Greek  additions]  Enoch  13"  Tobit  3"  Baruch  2'')  and 
in  those  composed  in  Greek  (Wisdom  2^  12^  j^u. le  jgi*  Epistle  of 
Jer.  25  [24]  2  Mace,  f--'^  \^^'^  3  Mace.  6"^  4  Mace.  11").  When 
the  breath  departs,  the  man  dies  (Sir.  38"'^  Judith  14^  Wisdom  16"). 
He  borrows  it  from  God  during  life  (Judith  16^*  Wisdom  12^  15"'^''), 
and  God  can  order  it  taken  away  at  any  time  (Tobit  3^  Baruch  2"  of. 
Apoc.  of  Baruch  3^.  Even  after  death  God  can  cause  it  to  be 
returned  to  the  man  and  he  will  live  again  (2  Mace.  7-^  i4^*')-  For 
this  reason  a  living  man  may  be  fitly  called  a  breath  of  life  (Judith 
lo'^).  In  none  of  these  passages,  however,  is  there  any  clear  evi- 
dence that  the  personality  of  man  himself  was  in  any  way  identified 
with  his  spirit  or  breath.^^  At  death  the  spirit  was  taken  away  from 
the  man.  In  one  or  two  passages  breath  is  used  by  metonymy  for 
word  spoken  by  means  of  the  breath  (Enoch  14-  cf.  Judith  16"), 
and  in  one  instance,  by  metonymy  for  the  living  person  (Song  of  the 
Three  Children  64  [=Dan.  3««]). 

2.  Ilveu/xa  used  for  spirit, 
a)    Spirit  of  God. 

The  concept  spirit  of  God,  or  divine  spirit,  is  not  often  employed 
in  the  Apocryphal  writings.-^  Most  of  the  books  make  no  use  of  it. 
This  is  not  strange  since  very  little  of  this  literature  is  permeated  with 
the  old  prophetic  ideas.  Prophecy  in  its  nobler  form  had  disap- 
peared, and  along  with  it  had  gone  the  prophetic  terminology.     The 

2"  The  term  which  covered  the  personality  of  the  man  was  soul  (y^^xhi  corre- 
sponding to  the  Hebrew  ^23)  Wisdom  3^  4^^  S^"  gi^  i6i't  4  Mace.  10*  18"^. 

-8  Only  in  Sir.  39^  4812-21  Wisdom  i^-^  f--  9"  ^  Mace.  7"  Susanna  42  (45) 
64  (62)  Ps.  Sol.  17*2  188. 


40  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

term  spirit  of  God  is  now  seldom  seen  outside  the  wisdom  books. 
In  almost  all  cases  in  which  it  occurs  the  spirit  is  conceived  as  the 
mediator  of  God's  wisdom  to  men.  So  closely  are  wisdom  and  spirit 
bound  up  together  that  the  terms  become  almost  identical  in  mean- 
ing."'' For  this  reason  one  can  speak  of  the  wisdom  of  spirit  (Ps. 
Sol.  18*')  just  as  properly  as  of  the  spirit  of  wisdom  (Wisdom  f). 
Both  phrases  emphasize  the  wisdom  embodied  in  and  conveyed  by 
the  divine  spirit.  Wisdom  and  spirit  are  both  conceived  of  as  ema- 
nations from  the  great  divine  fountain  and  capable  of  penetrating  all 
things  (Wisdom  7^^*^).  The  holy  spirit  of  instruction  will  come  and 
impart  its  wisdom  to  those  only  who  are  pure  in  thought  and  deed 
(Wisdom  i^-^;  cf.  Susanna  42,  64  [see  footnote  28]).  Without 
possessing  this  spirit  one  cannot  know  the  things  pertaining  to  the 
counsels  of  God  (Wisdom  9^''  Sir.  39^).  The  Messiah  was  to  possess 
this  spirit  in  its  fulness  (Ps.  Sol.  ly'*^  18^).  We  have  thus  reached  the 
sage's  conception  of  the  function  of  the  spirit  of  God.  It  brings 
intellectual  enlightenment  concerning  divine  things  to  those  who  are 
worthy  and  capable  of  receiving  it.  The  older  prophetic  view  of  the 
spirit  is  reflected  in  two  passages  in  the  Wisdom  of  Sirach  (48^"  ^*), 
but  these  are  scarcely  more  than  Old  Testament  references. 

b)    For  unembodied  or  disembodied  personal  spirits. 

This  use  of  7rv£V)u,a  is  almost  confined  to  the  Book  of  Enoch. 

(i)  Spirits  originally  good,  angelic  beings,  whose  home  is  in  heaven 
with  God. 

The  angelic  beings  who  had  their  home  in  heaven  and  left  it  to 
defile  themselves  with  women  are  called  spirits  (Enoch  15''"*).  These 
spirits  are  capable  of  assuming  many  different  forms  (Enoch  19^). 
Some  of  them  are  said  to  have  sinned  in  spirit  (Enoch  20^ ;  see 
Charles,  Book  of  Enoch,  p.  356  note).  In  the  Ethiopic  portions  of 
Enoch  the  phrase  "  Lord  of  spirits  "  seems  to  take  the  place  of  the 
older  "  Lord  of  hosts." 

(2)    Evil  spirits  capable  of  tonnenting  living  persons. 

The  spirits  which  went  forth  from  the  giants  at  their  death  are 
called  evil  spirits  (Enoch  15*''^  16^).  These  spirits  are  demons,  not 
confined  to  any  place  of  torment,  but  allowed  to  roam  at  large  and 
vex  living  persons.  This  is  probably  why  they  are  called  spirits 
rather  than  souls.  In  the  Book  of  Tobit  a  demon  inhabiting  a 
human  being  is  called  an  evil  spirit  (Tobit  6''^^'^). 

29  On  the  identification  of  the  two  in  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  see  Drummond, 
Philo  Jtidceus,  Vol.  I.  pp.  2 1 5-2 18. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE    USE    OF    111"!    AND    OF    irvevfrn..  4 1 

(3)   Disetnbodicd  human  spirits. 

This  new  meaning  for  7ri/eB|U,a  is  found  only  in  the  Book  of  Enoch 
(p'"^"  [see  Charles,  Enoch,  p.  70,  critical  note]  ici^  22^"^^).  The 
term,  in  this  sense,  seems  to  be  used  by  the  writer  as  a  synonym 
of  soul  (^^ux'?).  In  the  twenty-second  chapter  of  Enoch  the  two 
terms  are  used  interchangeably.  The  writer  was  probably  led  to 
this  use  of  Trvevfia  by  his  application  of  it  to  the  evil  spirits  which 
proceeded  from  the  bodies  of  the  giants.  The  spirits  of  men, 
however,  are  not  free  to  roam  about  as  the  spirits  of  the  giants. 
They  are  confined  to  underground  places  to  await  the  final  judg- 
ment. The  abode  of  the  spirits  (or  souls)  of  the  righteous  has 
light  and  water  in  it,  but  the  abode  of  sinners  is  made  for  torment 
and  pain.  While  it  is  thus  clear  that  in  the  Book  of  Enoch  irvevixa 
is  used  as  a  synonym  of  soul  to  designate  the  disembodied  person- 
ality of  the  man  after  death,  yet  it  does  not  seem  that  the  innovation 
was  followed  by  any  other  writer  of  the  period.  In  both  Hebrew 
and  Greek  thought  the  term  for  soul  in  this  sense  was  too  common 
and  too  well  fixed  to  be  easily  displaced  by  any  similar  term. 

c)  Uvcv/xa  /or  strength,  courage,  anger,  or  as  the  seat  and  source 
of  excitement,  distress,  and  humility. 

This  use  of  Trvtv/xa  is  not  found  in  any  book  of  the  Apocrypha 
which  was  composed  in  the  Greek.  This  is  another  evidence  that 
among  Greek-speaking  people  there  was  no  such  meaning  in  vogue. 
There  are,  however,  several  instances  of  the  use  of  the  term  in  the 
translated  portions  of  the  Apocrypha.  Thus  the  spirit  (courage)  of 
the  people  revived  when  they  chose  Simeon  for  their  leader  (i  Mace. 
13^;  of.  Sir.  3 1  [34]'^'^-').  God  changed  the  spirit  (fierce  anger) 
of  King  Ahasuerus  into  mildness  toward  Esther  (Esther  5^  Greek 
addition).  The  Lord  stirred  up  the  spirit  of  Cyrus  to  make  a  proc- 
lamation (i  Esdras  2- ;  cf.  2  Chron.  36"'),  and  the  spirit  of  the  priests 
and  Levites  to  build  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (i  Esdras  2^.  The 
spirit  is  the  seat  of  excitement  and  impulse  (Sir.  9^).  It  is  also 
the  seat  of  cowardice  (Judith  7^^),  anguish  (Baruch  3^),  and  humility 
(Song  of  the  Three  Children  16  [  =  Dan.  3""]).  These  examples, 
which  comprise  the  full  Hst,  show  that  irvevfji.a  in  the  Apocrypha  does 
not  go  beyond  the  usage  of  HI"!  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  fact  they 
show  that  the  latter  term  forces  this  particular  meaning  upon  the 
former. 


42  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

IV.      Use  of  rii^eOyLta  by  Philo. 

Philo,  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  was  not  familiar  with  the  Aramaic 
language  and  only  meagrely  with  the  Old  Testament  Hebrew.  His 
biblical  ideas,  therefore,  and  to  a  certain  extent  his  religious  terms, 
came  to  him  through  the  medium  of  the  Septuagint,  though  in  general 
he  wrote  the  literary  Greek  of  the  period  but  httle  affected  by  Hebrew 
or  Septuagint  usage.  He  composed  his  voluminous  works  during 
the  first  half  of  the  first  century  a.d.,  hence  ought  to  be  a  valuable 
witness  to  the  ordinary  usage  of  Greek  terms  among  non-Palestinian 
Jews  during  New  Testament  times.  Unfortunately  there  is  no  con- 
cordance or  index  to  his  writings,  and  in  a  cursory  reading  one  can- 
not be  sure  of  securing  all  the  instances  of  the  use  of  any  particular 
word.  In  the  more  than  eighteen  hundred  pages  of  the  Greek  text 
of  Philo,  however,  the  word  7rv£?/xa  occurs  only  about  one  hundred 
and  sixteen  times,  while  the  term  "  soul  "  i^vyj])  is  used  nearly  eighteen 
hundred  times,  or  on  an  average  of  once  to  every  page.  This  shows 
that  the  leading  term  with  Philo  was  soul,  not  spirit 

Philo,  following  to  this  extent  the  Greek  O.T.,  uses  the  term  irvev/xa 
in  the  four  traditional  senses,  —  wind,  breath,  spirit  of  God,  and  spirit 
of  man,  though  in  the  case  of  the  two  latter  he  deviates  considerably 
from  the  ordinary  Jewish  conceptions. 

I.  Ilvevfjia  used  for  wind  and  breath. 

a)  For  wind. 

There  are  about  forty-five  cases  of  this  usage  in  Philo.'''"  With 
Plato  he  defines  wind  as  air  in  motion  (Quod  Det.  Pot.  Ins.  33). 
IIver/Aa  is  used  both  of  a  violent  wind  and  a  zephyr,  but  more  often 
of  the  former  than  of  the  latter.  The  wind  is  said  to  hold  the  earth 
together  (Mund.  Op.  45),  and  to  be  necessary  for  the  nourishment 
and  growth  of  plants  as  well  as  of  animals  (Mund.  Op.  8  ;  Gigant.  2  ; 
Abr.  19;  Great.  Prin.  12;  and  two  of  the  fragments).  The  old 
Jewish  idea  of  the  wind  as  under  the  immediate  control  of  God 
seems  to  be  almost  entirely  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the  fact 
that  Philo  had  adopted  Greek  conceptions  of  physical  nature. 

30  Mund.  Op.  8,  19,45;  Leg.  Alleg.  III.  17;  Cherub.  11  (twice),  31;  Post. 
Caini.  7;  Gigant.  2  (twice);  Quod  Deus  Immut.  13;  Agri.  Noe.  40;  Ebrieti 
27;  Migrat.  Abr.  27,  39;  Quis  Rer.  Div.  Her.  43;  Congr.  Erud.  Gr.  24;  Somn. 
II.  2,  9,  13  (twice),  24;  Abr.  8,  19,  31 ;  Josepho,  7;  Vita  Mos.  I.  8,  32;  IIL  10; 
Monarch.  I.  2;  H.  5;  Vict.  Offer.  8;  Sept.  8;  Special.  Leg.  (VIII.-X.)  6;  Great. 
Prin.  12;  Praem.  et  Poen.  7;  Incor.  Mund.  3,26;  Lib.  in  Flacc.  19;  Leg.  ad 
Cai.  27;   Mund.  20;   Fragments  (four  times). 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE  USE   OF   HI"!   AND   OF   7rve5)/LMX. 

b)  For  breath. 

In  this  sense,  Philo  uses  nvevfia  about  eleven  times.^^  Breath  is 
considered  as  necessary  to  life.  It  is  akin  to  the  air  outside,  being, 
in  fact,  a  part  of  it.  It  is  inhaled  through  the  nostrils  and  mouth 
and  travels  in  the  arteries  (Quod  Deus  Immut.  iS  ;  Exsecrat.  5  ;  Leg. 
ad  Cai.  9,  18).  In  this  meaning  of  irvevfxu,  Philo  follows  the  classical 
authors  more  closely  than  he  does  the  biblical  writers.  He  scarcely 
ever,  if  at  all,  speaks  of  the  physical  breath  as  coming  from  God,  and 
never  of  its  return  to  God.  According  to  Philo,  what  God  really 
breathed  into  man  was  his  rational  nature,  not  his  physical  breath. 

2.  Ilvevfjia  for  spirit. 

a)  Spirit  of  God. 

Philo  uses  TrveS/xa  in  this  sense  about  forty-seven  times.'-  The 
phrase  "  spirit  of  God  "  he  scarcely  ever  uses  unless  called  upon  to  do 
so  in  order  to  explain  some  passage  of  Scripture.  But  in  the  mean- 
ing which  he  assigns  to  it  he  almost  always  departs  from  biblical 
usage.  He  usually  gives  the  phrase  such  a  definition  as  will  harmo- 
nize with  his  system  of  philosophy.  He  says  the  term  has  two 
senses:  (i)  the  air  blowing  upon  the  earth  and  borne  aloft  by  the 
water  (Gen.  i^)  ;  and  (2)  the  pure  knowledge  in  which  every  wise 
man  participates  (Ex.  31^;  Gigant.  5).  The  latter  definition  Philo 
adopts  as  the  true  one.  The  spirit  is  universal  wisdom,  and  as  such 
belongs  to  the  very  nature  of  God.  God  can,  however,  impart  it  to 
man.  In  fact  at  the  time  of  the  creation  he  breathed  his  spirit  (the 
divine  power  of  reasoning)  into  the  mind  of  man,  thus  enabling  him 
to  understand  divine  things  (Leg.  Alleg.  13;  Mund.  Op.  46,  50; 
Concup.  11).  Hence  the  spirit  of  God  is  also  the  very  essence  of 
the  mind  of  man  (Quis  Rer.  Div.  Her.  11  ;  cf  Concup.  11).  It  was 
this  all-wise  spirit  in  which  Moses  so  fully  participated  ;  a  portion  of 
which  God  imparted  to  the  seventy  elders  (Num.  11'');  and  this, 
too,  though  the  divine  spirit  is  indivisible,  continuous  {i.e.  without 
separation),  and  undiminished  by  communication  (Gigant.  6). 
Because  Moses  was  the  most  perfect  among  the  prophets,  God  was 

^1  Leg.  Alleg.  I.  29;  Quod  Deus  Immut.  iS;  Somn.  1,6;  Vita  Mos.  I.  16; 
Exsecrat.  5;   Incor.  Mund.  24;   Leg.  ad  Cai.  9,  18,  29,  33;   Fragments  (once). 

32  Mund.  Op.  46,  50;  Leg.  Alleg.  \.  13  (eight  limes);  Gigant.  5  (six  times), 
6  (four  times),  7  (twice),  11,  12  (twice);  Quod  Deus  Immut.  i  (twice); 
Plantat.  Noe.  5,  6,  11 ;  Quis  Rer.  Div.  Her.  11,  12,  53;  Fuga  et  Invent.  33; 
Somn.  II.  38;  Josepho,  21;  Vita  Mos.  I.  31;  II.  7;  III.  36;  Decalog.  33; 
Special.  Leg.  (VIII.-X.),  8;  Concup.  11  (three  times) ;  Caritate,  18;  Nobil.  5; 
Fragments  (once). 


44  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

enabled  through  His  spirit  to  promulgate  His  laws  through  him 
(Decalog.  $2)-  So  sensitive  were  the  prophets  to  this  spirit  that  the 
mind  (vovs)  which  was  in  them  departed  at  the  arrival  of  the  divine 
spirit  (Quis  Rer.  Div.  Her.  53),  When  the  spirit  took  up  its  abode 
in  such  a  prophet,  it  operated  upon  all  the  organization  of  his  voice 
and  made  it  utter  forth  the  prophecies  which  he  was  delivering 
(Spec.  Leg.  [VHI.,  IX.,  X.]8).  The  divine  spirit  which  Abraham 
possessed  changed  everything  in  him  for  the  better,  —  his  eyes,  his 
complexion,  his  size,  his  motions,  and  his  voice.  It  even  clothed  his 
body  with  extraordinary  beauty,  and  invested  his  words  with  per- 
suasiveness, while  at  the  same  time  it  endowed  his  hearers  with 
understanding  (Nobil.  5).  Philo  thus  carries  to  completion  the  in- 
tellectual conception  of  the  nature  and  function  of  the  spirit  of 
God,  which  had  been  emphasized  by  the  writer  of  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  and  in  other  books  of  the  Apocrypha.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever, the  spirit  is  more  than  the  bearer  of  wisdom  —  it  is  wisdom 
itself.'^^ 

^)  For  the  spirit  or  tnind  of  man. 

Philo  uses  irvtvfxa  with  this  meaning  about  thirteen  times.^  Here 
again  it  is  the  influence  of  the  Greek  O.T.  which  causes  him  to 
employ  the  term,  though  as  before  he  almost  wholly  abandons  the 
meanings  there  given  and  supplies  one  of  his  own  more  consonant 
with  his  philosophy,  and  with  his  view  of  the  divine  spirit.  With 
him  the  human  spirit  is  simply  a  portion  of  the  divine  spirit.  When 
God  breathed  into  man,  he  did  not  communicate  to  him  literal  breath, 
but  a  ray  from  his  blessed  and  thrice-happy  nature  (De  Concup.  1 1). 
He  stimulated  the  mind  (voSs)  of  man  in  such  a  way  as  to  impart  to 
him  the  ability  to  reason  and  to  understand  divine  things  (Leg. 
Alleg.  13).  This  mind  or  rational  part  of  the  soul,  Philo  calls  the 
spirit  (Fuga  et  Invent.  24;  Mutat.  Nom.  21;  Victimis,  3;  Vict. 
Offer.  4).  It  is  an  image  or  representation  of  the  divine  rational 
nature  (Quod  Det.  Pot.  Ins.  22,  23),  a  part  of  its  very  essence  (Quis 
Rer.  Div.  Her.  11),  In  only  one  passage  does  Philo  use  the  term 
in  the  sense  of  strength  and  courage,  the  common  Old  Testament 
meaning  (Quod  Omn.  Prob.  Lib.  5). 

We  thus  see  that  Philo  not  only  makes  the  concept  and  function  of 
the  spirit  of  God  harmonize  with  his  conception  of  universal  reason, 

^3  Cf.  Drummond,  Philo  Judaus,  Vol.  II.  pp.  214-21 7. 

^  Quod  Det.  Pot.  Ins.  22  (twice),  23  (twice);  Post.  Caini.  19;  Gigant.  6; 
Agr.  Noe.  10;  Fuga  et  Invent.  24,  32;  Mutat.  Nom.  21;  Victimis.  3;  Vict. 
Offer.  4;    Quod  Omn.  Prob.  Lib.  5. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE   USE   OF   HIT   AND   OF   TTVtVfxa.  45 

but  he  does  the  same  with  the  spirit  of  man.  Man's  spirit  is  his 
reasoning  faculty  —  his  mind  —  that  part  of  him  by  which  he  is  made 
superior  to  the  animals. 


V.      T/ie  Use  of  Yivev^a  by  Josephiis. 

Flavius  Josephus,  being  a  Palestinian  Jew,  was  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  x\ramaic  language,  in  which,  indeed,  he  says  he 
first  composed  his  Wars  of  the  fews?^  His  voluminous  works,  in 
the  Greek,  were  produced  while  residing  in  Rome  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  first  century  a.d.  This  is  precisely  the  period  in  which 
the  larger  portion  of  the  New  Testament  books  were  composed. 
For  this  reason  his  use  of  Greek  words  ought  to  be  a  valuable  aux- 
iliary in  determining  the  meaning  of  New  Testament  terms.  A 
cursory  reading  of  the  more  than  two  thousand  pages  (Ed.  Niese) 
of  the  Greek  text  of  Josephus's  works  discovers  the  word  TrveC/ia  only 
about  twenty-eight  times,  while  the  word  "  soul  "  (i/'ux'?)  occurs  more 
than  two  hundred  times.  Josephus  seldom,  if  ever,  employs  the 
term  TrveS/ia  with  any  other  meaning  than  wind  or  breath,  unless  com- 
pelled to  do  so  by  biblical  or  other  Jewish  usage.  Since  Josephus, 
as  well  as  Philo,  wrote  for  Greek-speaking  Gentiles,  this  shows  that 
wind  and  breath  were  the  only  meanings  in  common  use. 

I.  IIveC/Lia  used  for  wind  and  breath. 

a)   For  wind. 

This  usage  occurs  about  eleven  times.'^^  It  is  used  more  often  of 
a  storm  wind  than  of  a  light  breeze.  The  spirit  of  God  which  moved 
upon  the  waters  (Gen.  i")  is  understood  by  Josephus,  as  well  as  Philo 
(Gigant.  5),  to  refer  to  the  wind  {Antiq.  i,  i,  i). 

b')  For  breath  or  life. 

There  are  only  about  four  cases  of  this  usage,  —  two  of  simple 
breath  {Antiq.  3,  12,  6  ;  i  7,  6,  5),  and  two  involving  the  idea  of  life 
(Antiq.  i,  i,  2  ;  3,  11,  2).  The  two  latter  are  based  upon  Gen.  2'^-. 
From  the  second  of  these  it  is  clear  that  irvevfxa  refers  to  breath  or 
life,  since  spirit  in  any  other  sense  was  not  attributed  to  animals.^^ 

^5  See  the  preface  to  his  Wars. 

^'^  Antiq.  I,  i,  I;  2,  16,  3;  2,  16,  6;  8,  13,  6;  9,  lO,  2;  lO,  li,  7;  12,  2,  9; 
14,  2,  2;    16,  2,  2;    16,  2,  5;    Wars.,  4,  8,  4. 

*^  Philo  maintained  that  breath  was  mingled  with  the  blood  in  the  veins  and 
arteries.  Fragments  in  a  Monkish  MS.  See  Ed.  Richter,  Vol.  VI.  p.  230 
(translated  by  Yonge,  Vol.  IV.  p.  268). 


46  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

2.  ITvev/Aa  used  for  spirit. 

a)   For  the  spirit  of  God. 

Josephus  employs  the  term  in  this  sense  only  about  eight  times.^ 
Like  Philo,  he  never  uses  it  except  when  he  is  explaining  some  Old 
Testament  reference.  He  does  not  seem  to  attribute  personality  to 
the  spirit.  He  views  it  rather  as  a  power  or  attribute  of  God.  The 
quantitative  conception  seems  to  be  uppermost  in  his  mind,  for  he 
says  that  Solomon  prayed  that  some  portion  of  the  divine  spirit 
might  dwell  in  the  temple,  though  the  heavens  were  too  small  a 
habitation  for  God  himself  {Antiq.  8,  4,  3).  Like  Philo,  he  con- 
ceives the  prophets  to  be  passive  agents  of  the  divine  spirit.  The 
spirit  put  the  exact  words  of  the  prophecy  into  the  mouth  of  Balaam 
so  that  the  prophet  could  speak  no  other  even  if  he  desired  to  do 
so.^^  In  commenting  upon  i  Sam.  16^^-^  Josephus  says  that  the 
divine  spirit  in  departing  from  Saul  removed  to  David,  and  in  its 
place  there  came  demons  (Sat/xoVta)  upon  Saul  {Antiq.  6,  8,  2). 

i>)  For  disembodied  personal  spirits. 

( 1 )  For  good  spirits. 

There  is  but  one  example.  Josephus  calls  the  angel  who  met 
Balaam  in  the  way  a  spirit  {Antiq.  4,  6,  3). 

(2)  For  evil  spirits  possessing  and  tormenting  men. 

The  demon  which  came  upon  Saul  and  which  only  David  could 
cast  out  is  called  an  evil  spirit  {Antiq.  6,  11,  2  ;  of.  6,  8,  2).  In 
another  passage  {Wars,  7,  6,  3)  he  says  that  the  demons  are  the 
spirits  of  the  wicked  which  enter  into  living  men.  There  is  here 
probably  a  reflection  of  the  same  idea  of  evil  spirits  as  proceeding 
from  giants  which  is  found  in  the  Book  of  Enoch. 

c)  For  strength  and  courage. 

There  are  but  two  examples  of  this  meaning,  and  these  are  in 
agreement  with  Septuagint  and  Apocryphal  usage.  He  says  that 
when  Esther  came  into  the  presence  of  the  king,  her  spirit  departed 
from  her  and  she  fainted  {Antiq.  11,  6,  9  ;  cf.  Esther  5^  LXX.  addi- 
tion). Also  that  the  Roman  soldiers,  filled  with  a  certain  warlike 
spirit  {i.e.  the  spirit  viewed  as  the  seat  of  animation  and  courage), 
when  asked  if  they  are  ready  to  go  to  war,  throw  up  their  hands  and 
reply,  "We  are  ready"  {Wars,  3,  5,  4). 

^^ Antiq.  4,  6,  5  (twice);   6,  8,  2;  6,  II,  5  (twice);  8,  4,  3;  8,  15,  4;  10,  11,  3. 
3^  Antiq.  4,  6,  5 ;  cf.  Num.  23^^  where  it  is  said  that  the  Lord  put  the  words 
in  Balaam's  mouth. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   hi"!   AND   OF   vvev/xa.  4  7 


VI.      T/ie  Use  of  IlwO/ia  in  the  New  Testament. 

Fortunately  the  composition  of  tlie  New  Testament  writings  took 
place  within  so  short  a  period  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  for  our 
present  purpose  to  treat  them  chronologically.  Since,  however,  the 
authors,  in  consequence  of  difference  of  nationality,  environment,  and 
education,  differ  somewhat  widely  in  thought  and  terminology,  it  will 
be  convenient  to  arrange  their  writings  in  groups.  Thus,  for  example, 
in  certain  uses  of  the  term  irvcviLa  it  will  be  found  that  the  sayings  of 
Jesus  form  one  group  ;  the  evangelists,  a  second  ;  the  Book  of  Acts, 
the  catholic  epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse,  a  third  ;  and  the  Pauline 
writings,  a  fourth. 

In  general,  the  meanings  of  7rv;v/A2  in  the  New  Testament  corre- 
spond with  those  in  the  Greek  O.T.  and  Apocrypha.  There  are, 
however,  marked  deviations  from  that  usage.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that,  among  Greek-speaking  Gentiles,  Trvev/xa  was  still  a  physical 
term,  among  Christians  it  was  tending  rapidly  to  become  an  ex- 
clusively religious  and  psychological  term.  This  tendency  is  shown 
not  alone  by  New  Testament  authors,  but  to  the  same  extent  by  the 
apostolic  fathers.  In  all  of  this  Christian  literature,  the  word  is 
seldom  employed  to  denote  wind  or  breath,  but  is  used  much  more 
frequently  in  the  sense  of  spirit  of  God  and  (especially  in  the  Pauline 
writings)  of  the  spirit  of  man. 

I .  The  use  of  Trvf.vjxa  for  wind  and  breath. 

a)  For  wind. 

,  Numerous  as  are  the  examples  of  this  use  in  the  Greek  literature 
of  this  period,  there  is  but  one  clear  instance  in  the  New  Testament. 
In  the  Gospel  of  John  it  is  said  that  the  wind  blows  where  it  wills 
(John  3*).  A  possible  second  instance  is  found  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  where  the  writer,  in  speaking  of  the  angels,  quotes 
Psalm  104:  "He  makes  the  winds  his  messengers  (angels);  his 
ministers  a  flame  of  fire  "  (Heb.  i').  Though  it  is  clear  that  the 
psalmist  refers  to  winds,  it  is  possible  that  the  writer  of  Hebrews 
understood  him  to  mean  spirits,  since  in  the  same  connection  he 
speaks  of  the  angels  as  ministering  spirits  (Heb.  i"). 

b)  For  breath. 

To  illustrate  this  meaning  of  7rvev/xa  there  are  but  six  clear  examples 
in  the  New  Testament.  In  nearly  all  of  these  cases  it  is  implied 
that  breath  is  necessary  to  life.     It  seemed  a  truism  to  say  that  the 


48  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

body  without  breath  was  dead  (James  2-").*°  The  image  of  the  beast 
did  not  live  until  breath  was  given  to  it  (Rev.  13^^).  This  breath  of 
Ufe  comes  from  God  (Rev.  11";  cf.  Acts  17^  where  ttvot;  is  used), 
and  at  death  is  dehvered  up  again  to  him  (John  ip'*).  Matthew 
says  that  when  Jesus  died  he  sent  forth  (d(j)rJKev)  his  breath.''^  It  is 
possible  that  TrveS/ta  is  used  in  the  sense  of  breath  in  three  similar 
passages  in  the  writings  of  Luke  (Luke  2^^  8^^  Acts  7^^).  The  con- 
text of  these  passages,  however,  as  well  as  the  mode  in  which  they  are 
expressed,  together  with  the  fact  that  Luke  is  a  Gentile  writer  under 
the  influence  of  Pauline  conceptions,  make  it  more  probable  that  he 
has  given  the  term  another  meaning  (see  below). 

It  is  uncertain  whether  Paul  ever  used  the  term  Trvevfxa  in  the  sense 
of  breath,  since  the  only  example  which  can  be  appealed  to  occurs  in 
a  book  whose  Pauhne  authorship  is  questioned.  The  writer,  adopting 
the  language  of  those  Old  Testament  passages  in  which  by  a  metonymy 
the  hot  destructive  desert  wind  is  spoken  of  as  the  breath  of  God  (cf. 
Isa.  11"*;  Job  4^),  says  that  the  Lord  (Jesus)  will  slay  (or  consume) 
with  the  breath*-  of  his  mouth  the  lawless  one  (2  Thess.  2*). 

It  is  quite  possible,  if  not  probable,  that  TrveS/xa  in  Heb.  4^-  denotes 
breath  of  life.  In  this  case  the  writer  would  mean  that  the  living 
and  active  word  of  God  {i.e.  God's  judgments  against  evil-doers)  can 
destroy  those  who  harden  their  hearts  against  him,  just  as  surely  as 
he  destroyed  the  disobedient  Israelites  (Heb.  3""^*  4'^).  The  word 
of  God  is  thus,  as  the  context  requires,  punitive  as  well  as  discern- 
ing. Like  a  two-edged  sword  it  penetrates  the  body  until  soul  (life) 
and  spirit  (breath)  are  released.*^  Nor  does  it  stop  until  it  has  gone 
to  the  utmost  recesses  of  the  physical  organism,  penetrating  even  to 
the  joints  and  marrow,'"  and  discerning  the  thoughts  and  intents  of 

*"  Note  the  use  of  the  article  before  body  (nw/xa),  but  its  omission  before 
irvevna  (cf.  Rev.  ii^^  IS^^)-  This  tends  to  show  that  wvevfjia  is  used  of  the  general 
concept  breath,  and  not  of  the  spirit  (of  man)  as  the  seat  of  thought,  or  as  the 
bearer  of  his  personality  (cf.  footnotes  50  and  51). 

*i  Matt.  27^0  (cf.  Mark  15^"  where  the  verb  iKirviw  is  used).  In  this  passage, 
as  well  as  in  John  19^',  the  article  employed  with  Trvevfia  is  used  with  the  force 
of  the  personal  pronoun  "  his." 

''2  It  is  possible  that  breath  here  is  used  by  metonymy  for  word  spoken  by 
means  of  the  breath.  See  the  17th  Psalm  of  Solomon,  "He  shall  destroy 
the  ungodly  nations  with  the  word  of  his  mouth." 

*^  The  dividing  {fxepicrixov)  or  separating  would  thus  be  either  of  soul  from  the 
breath  (cf.  Job  71^  in  the  LXX.)  or,  more  probably,  of  soul  and  breath  (both  used 
as  synonyms  of  life)  from  the  body. 

**  In  this  case  "joints  and  marrow"  would  be  coordinate  with  yaepto-/i,oO,  not 
governed  by  it. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF  Pin   AND   OF  Trvevfia.  49 

the  heart.  Most  interpreters,  however,  take  irvevfj-a  in  this  passage 
to  denote  mind,  the  higher  faculty  of  the  soul.''^  If  this  is  the  mean- 
ing the  usage  must  be  classed  along  with  certain  Pauline  examples. 

2.    T//e  use  of  irvev/xa  for  spirit. 

a)  For  the  spirit  of  God,  or  Holy  Spirit. 

As  was  intimated  above,  the  New  Testament  literature  shows  a 
rapid  advance  in  the  conception  of  the  function  of  the  spirit  of  God. 
Not  only  was  the  term  used  in  almost  every  sense  known  in  the 
earlier  Jewish  writings,  but  new  meanings  were  coined  for  it.  Early 
Christianity  was,  to  a  great  extent,  a  revival  of  prophetic  conceptions 
and  ideals  as  over  against  the  priestly  ideals  then  in  vogue.  And  as 
the  prophetic  conceptions  again  came  to  the  front,  the  old  prophetic 
terms  took  on  new  life  and  meaning.  This,  then,  was  preeminently 
the  age  of  the  spirit. 

(i)  T/ie  use  of  the  term  "  Holy  Spirit,''^  or  "  spirit  of  God''  in  the 
teachings  of  fesics. 

(a)  In  the  synoptic  gospels.  It  is  remarkable  how  rarely  Jesus 
makes  any  reference  to  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  sayings  recorded  of 
him  in  these  gospels,  and  how  limited  are  the  functions  which  he 
there  assigns  to  it.  This  fact  is  all  the  more  significant  when  it  is 
remembered  that  these  sayings  were  handed  down  and  committed 
to  writing  during  a  period  when  the  church  was  most  actively  en- 
gaged in  elaborating  the  doctrine  of  the  spirit. 

In  silencing  the  Pharisees,  Jesus  prefaces  his  quotation  of  a 
prophecy  commonly  regarded  as  messianic  with  the  words,  "  How 
then  doth  David  in  spirit  call  him  Lord"  (Matt.  22''^  Mark  12^). 
In  another  quotation  recorded  only  in  the  gospel  of  Luke  (4^* ;  cf. 
Matt.  12^*),  he  implies  that  he  accomplishes  his  messianic  mission 
through  the  possession  of  the  spirit  of  God.  In  a  saying  recorded  in 
the  gospel  of  Matthew  (12-^)  he  afifirms  that  it  is  by  the  spirit  of 
God^"  that  he  casts  out  demons.  The  unpardonable  sin,  the  sin 
against  the  Holy  Spirit  (Matt.  i_2'^^-  ^  Mark  3^  Luke  1 2^"),  seems  to 

^5  This  as  we  have  seen  is  one  of  the  meanings  which  Philo  gives  to  irvevfia, 
hence  is  not  impossible,  especially  if  the  book  was  written  in  Alexandria.  Never- 
theless, as  will  be  shown,  this  usage  was  not  common  or  widespread.  Further- 
more, under  this  interpretation  yap  seems  to  be  deprived  largely  of  its  force,  and 
the  words  "joints  and  marrow  "  are  compelled  to  assume  strained  and  unnatural 
meanings. 

'"'In  the  Lucan  parallel  (n-')  we  have  "by  the  finger  of  God."  This  vari- 
ation seems  to  be  due  to  Luke's  conception  of  the  fundamental  nature  of  the 
spirit,  viz.  as  the  pmver  of  God  (cf.  Luke  i^^  Acts  10^*),  the  phrase  "  finger  of 
God  "  being  equivalent  to  the  latter  (cf.  Ex.  8^^). 


50  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

consist  in  ascribing  to  Satan  (Matt.  12-"*-'^)  or  to  an  unclean  spirit 
(Mark  3^)  the  deeds  performed  by  him  through  the  power  of  the 
spirit  of  God. 

As  to  the  function  of  the  spirit  with  reference  to  his  disciples 
Jesus  has  almost  as  little  to  say.  In  a  saying  recorded  by  the  three 
synoptists,  Jesus  tells  the  disciples  that  when  they  are  brought  before 
kings  and  magistrates,  the  Holy  Spirit  will  teach  them  what  they 
ought  to  speak,  or  rather  the  spirit  will  speak  in  or  through  them 
(Matt.  10^'  Mark  13^^  Luke  12^-) ;  and  in  another  saying  recorded  by 
Luke  (ii^'')  he  says  that  their  heavenly  Father  is  more  ready  to  give  • 
the  Holy  Spirit  to  those  who  ask  Him,  than  an  earthly  father  is  to 
give  good  gifts  to  his  children.'*''  If  the  baptismal  formula^*  recorded 
in  Matt.  28^^  is  a  genuine  saying  of  Jesus,  we  find  him  after  his 
resurrection  commanding  his  disciples  to  baptize  all  believers  into 
the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
These  few  passages  constitute  the  sum  of  Jesus'  teaching  in  the 
synoptic  gospels  concerning  the  function  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  its 
relation  to  himself  and  to  his  disciples.  The  work  which  he  assigns 
to  the  spirit  pertains  almost  wholly  to  the  extraordinary  and  miracu- 
lous. That,  however,  which  seems  to  be  lacking  in  these  gospels  is 
supplied  in  the  teaching  of.Jesus  as  set  forth 

(^)   In  the  gospel  of  John. 

In  this  gospel,  moral  transformation  and  spiritual  enlightenment 
are  the  functions  which  Jesus  assigns  to  the  spirit.  The  spirit  is  the 
transforming  power  in  the  operation  called  the  new  birth.  Jesus 
says  (John  3^)  that  except  a  man  be  born  of  water ^  and  spirit  he 
cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God.  By  this  operation  of  the  in- 
dwelling spirit  the  man  becomes  a  spiritual  man  (3").^  The  how  of 
the  process  remains  a  mystery  (3**),  but  the  fact  is  perfectly  clear. 
It  is  the  spirit  that  gives  life  (6*^').     But  the  work  of  the  spirit  does 

*'^  The  original  form  of  this  saying  may  be  that  found  in  the  gospel  of  Matthew 
(7II),  where  there  is  no  specific  mention  made  of  the  spirit. 

*^  On  the  date  of  this  passage  see  McGiffert,  Apostolic  Age,  p.  61 ;  and  on  the 
use  of  the  trinitarian  formula  in  the  early  church  see  Harnaclc,  History  of  Dogma 
(Eng.  trans.),  Vol.  I.  p.  157. 

*^  By  a  metonymy,  growing  out  of  the  baptism  into  repentance  instituted  by 
John,  water  probably  stands  in  this  passage  for  repentance.  See  Burton  and 
Mathews,  Constt-uctive  Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ,  on  this  passage. 

^°  Observe  that  the  second  irveOfjia  is  without  the  article,  i.e.  used  qualitatively. 
It  does  not,  with  any  probability,  refer  to  the  quickened  spirit  of  the  man  (since 
in  the  gospel  of  John  irvevixa  is  not  used  with  reference  to  the  mind  of  man)  but 
rather  to  the  man  quickened  by  the  spirit  of  God  —  the  spiritual  man. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE   USE   OF   111"!   AND   OF   Trveu/xa.  5  I 

not  end  with  regeneration.  Without  the  aid  of  the  spirit  true  worship 
is  impossible.  Jesus  tells  the  woman  of  Samaria  that  the  time  is 
coming  and  now  is  when  the  true  worshipper  will  worship  the  Father 
in  spirit  and  in  truth,  i.e.  through  the  possession  of  His  spirit  and 
the  truth  which  it  conveys  (John  4-'^-^;  cf.  i6''^).  That  this  is  the 
meaning  of  the  passage  seems  to  be  quite  clear  from  the  fact  that 
the  phrase  "in  spirit"  (ev  Trveu/xan  —  the  preposition  Iv  and  the  noun 
usually  without  the  article)  is  used  by  Jewish  writers  of  the  spirit  of 
God  only.''^  To  be  "  in  spirit "  (eV  Trveu/iart)  meant  to  possess  the 
spirit  of  God  or  to  be  possessed  by  that  spirit.  When  in  the  same 
passage  it  is  said  that  God  is  spirit,  the  writer  probably  means  nothing 
more  than  that  God  in  His  dealings  with  men  operates  through  the 
spirit  (cf.  2  Cor.  3^').  Most  interpreters,  however,  make  spirit  refer 
to  God's  non-embodied  existence,  and  this  meaning  is  not  without 
basis  in  current  usage  or  wholly  out  of  harmony  with  the  context. 

Spiritual  enlightenment  is  still  the  function  ascribed  to  the  spirit, 
when  the  spirit  is  spoken  of  by  Jesus  as  helper  or  advocate  (irapa- 
kAt/tos,  John  14^'-"  15-''  16^'').  Jesus  tells  his  disciples  that  when 
he  goes  away  he  will  pray  the  Father  to  send  the  spirit  of  truth,  who 
shall  lead  them  into  all  truth.  The  spirit  is  here  presented  as  the 
great  enlightener  —  the  bearer  of  truth  to  those  who  believe  in  Jesus. 
This  view  of  the  work  of  the  spirit  is  similar  to  that  presented  in  the 
Apocrypha,  and  in  Philo,  where  the  spirit  is  regarded  as  the  bearer 
of  wisdom  to  men.  Jesus  implies  (John  20^' ^•^)  that  the  possession 
of  the  spirit  will  enable  the  disciples  to  gain  such  insight  into  the 
lives  and  motives  of  men  that  they  will  have  the  right  to  exercise  the 
divine  prerogative  of  pardoning  sins. 

We  thus  see,  on  comparing  the  teaching  of  Jesus  as  recorded  in 
the  gospel  of  John  with  that  in  the  synoptic  gospels,  how  great  is  the 
advance  in  the  doctrine  of  the  spirit.  In  the  gospel  of  John  there  is 
a  wholly  new  order  of  functions  ascribed  to  the  spirit ;  and,  it  may 

51  See  Matt.  22*3  Luke  i"  2^7  4I  Rom.  2^9  (cf.  2  Cor.  f)  8^  Eph.  222 
35  5I8  6^^  Rev.  ii"  42  173  2ii°.  See  also  the  following  passages  in  which  the 
phrase  has  a  defining  modifier  attached:  Matt.  3I1  122^  Mark  12^^  Luke  3I8 
John  i33  Acts  i5  11I6  Rom.  9I  14"  15I6  i  Cor.  i23-9-i3  14I6  2  Cor.  6^  Eph.  2I8 
Phil.  i2T  Col.  i^  I  Thess.  i^  Jude  20.  To  the  above  maybe  added  many  examples 
from  the  LXX.  and  the  apostolic  fathers.  There  are  but  two  clear  exceptions 
to  this  usage  of  the  phrase  in  the  New  Testament,  one  (Acts  ig-^)  found  in  Luke's 
(a  Gentile's)  writings,  and  the  other  (Gal.  6^)  in  Paul's;  cf.,  however,  i  Tim.  3^^ 
which  may  be  another  instance.  Had  the  writer  of  John  4-3- -'-i  meant  the  human 
spirit  he  would  have  omitted  the  iv  and  used  the  article,  see  John  ii^^  132I; 
cf.  Matt.  53  Mark  S^-  Acts  iS-^^  Rom.  12II  i  Cor.  53  2  Cor.  2^^  Eph.  4-3 


52  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL    LITER.ATURE. 

be  added,  that  this  new  order  is  found  only  in  the  teaching  of 
Jesus.'^- 

(2)     The  usage  of  the  four  evangelists  in  respect  to  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  gospel  writers  (omitting  for  the  present  certain  portions  of  the 
infancy  narratives  in  the  gospel  of  Luke,  which  reflect  a  conception 
not  elsewhere  expressed  in  the  gospels)  have  very  Httle  to  say  of  the 
function  of  the  spirit  with  reference  to  believers.  The  disciples  are 
not  thought  of  as  permanently  endowed  with  the  spirit  before  the 
death  of  Jesus,  hence  these  writers  deal  almost  wholly  with  the  rela- 
tion of  the  spirit  to  Jesus  himself.  The  gospels  of  Matthew  and 
Luke  concur  in  ascribing  to  the  Holy  Spirit  a  share  in  the  physical 
generation  of  Jesus  (Matt,  i^^-'^'  Luke  1''^).  This  particular  function 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  entirely  unique.  Nothing  like  it  is  found  else- 
where either  in  the  Old  or  New  Testaments.  The  conception  of  the 
nature  of  the  spirit,  however,  seems  to  be  the  same  as  before.  Luke 
uses  the  phrase  "  Holy  Spirit  "  synonymously  with  the  phrase  "  power 
of  the  Most  High  "  (Luke  i'^).  Hence  according  to  his  conception 
the  real  cause  in  the  generation  of  Jesus  was  God.  The  spirit  was 
simply  God's  means  of  accomplishing  it.  Thus  in  a  unique  way 
Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God.  The  holiness  of  his  life  and  character 
could  be  explained  in  no  other  way.  Nothing  is  said  of  his  relation 
to  the  spirit  during  his  youth  and  early  manhood,  but  when  he  comes 
to  maturity  and  enters  upon  his  life  work,  the  gospel  writers  all  main- 
tain that  he  received  a  special  outpouring  of  the  spirit.  In  fact  the 
synoptic  gospels  as  well  as  the  gospel  of  John  picture  Jesus  as  the 
only  person  who,  in  the  Christian  dispensation  prior  to  the  ascension, 
was  permanently  endowed  with  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  spirit  de- 
scended upon  him  at  the  time  of  his  baptism  (Matt.  3^®  Mark  i^" 
Luke  3"  John  i^-).  It  seems  to  have  been  because  he  was  already 
pure  and  holy,  God's  beloved  Son,  that  the  spirit  was  bestowed  upon 
him. 

There  is  no  clear  evidence  in  these  passages  that  the  writers 
intended  to  ascribe  to  the  spirit  a  personality  separate  from  God.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  quantitative  conception  of  it  is  so  strongly  marked 
that  the  other  is  practically  ruled  out.  The  heavens  were  opened, 
rent  asunder,  and  the  spirit  descended  as  a  dove  upon  Jesus.  Luke 
says  that  God  anointed  Jesus  with  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  10^)  and 
John  says  that  God  did  not  bestow  the  spirit  by  measure  (John  3'^). 
As  in  the  Old  Testament,  so  also  here,  the  spirit  is  viewed  as  an  attri- 

^2  If  these  ideas  emanate  from  the  evangelist  rather  than  from  Jesus  himself, 
the  former  has  always  been  careful  to  express  them  in  words  ascribed  to  the  latter. 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   ffll   AND   OF   Trvevfjia.  5  3 

bute  or  power  of  God.  Through  it  he  guides  and  empowers  Jesus. 
The  spirit  (or  God  through  the  spirit)  impels  Jesus  to  enter  the  wil- 
derness to  be  tempted  of  Satan  (Matt.  4^  Mark  i^-  Luke  4^).  Through 
the  spirit  God  imparts  to  Jesus  the  power  to  do  the  work  assigned  to 
him  as  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  (Luke  4'**  John  3**  Matt.  12'**), 
especially  the  power  to  work  miracles  (Luke  4"  ;  cf.  Acts  lo"'^). 

But  Jesus  is  set  forth  by  the  gospel  writers  not  only  as  the  bearer 
of  the  spirit,  he  is  also  viewed  as  the  communicator  of  it  to  his  fol- 
lowers. The  evangelists  regard  it  as  the  mission  of  Jesus  to  bestow 
the  Holy  Spirit  upon  those  who  are  members  of  his  kingdom.  They 
all  report  the  announcement  of  John  the  Baptist  that  his  greater 
successor  will  baptize  with  Holy  Spirit.^^  John  and  Luke  alone 
record  the  fulfilment  of  this  prediction,  and  both  of  these  writers  place 
it  after  the  resurrection  of  Jesus.  Indeed  John  says  explicitly  that 
the  spirit  was  not  yet  given  because  Jesus  was  not  yet  glorified 
(John  7^^).  As  to  the  precise  time  when  the  spirit  was  communicated 
to  the  disciples,  John  and  Luke  differ.  John  places  it  before  the 
ascension  (John  20--),  Luke  places  it  after  (Acts  2^"*).  As  to  the  way 
in  which  he  communicated  the  spirit,  they  differ  also.  John  says 
that  he  breathed  it  upon  them,  Luke  that  he  poured  it  forth  from 
heaven.  Both  writers,  however,  agree  that  the  Father  is  the  ultimate 
source  of  the  spirit  (i  John  y*  4'^  Acts  i'*-^  2*'  15*;  cf.  John  14^^-^^ 
1526  Luke  11^^). 

(3)  T/ie  usage  of  the  Book  of  Acts  {together  with  the  infancy  narra- 
tives in  the  gospel  of  Luke),  the  catholic  epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse  in 
respect  to  the  Holy  Spirit. 

In  these  writings  little  is  said  of  Jesus'  relation  to  the  spirit.  Luke, 
in  his  preface  to  Acts,  says  that  at  the  time  of  the  ascension  Jesus 

53  Matt.  3II  Mark  !»  Luke  3I3  John  i^S;  cf.  Acts  i^  \\^>.  The  Matthew  and 
Luke  accounts  add  the  word  "  fire,"  but  since  it  is  probable  that  the  Mark  and 
John  accounts  are  the  older,  the  former  must  be  regarded  as  elaborations  of  the 
latter.  According  to  the  longer  narratives  the  Pharisees  came  to  John  to  be  bap- 
tized. He  accuses  them  of  hypocrisy  and  says  that  when  Jesus  comes  he  will 
baptize  with  Holy  Spirit  and  fire.  He  will  gather  the  wheat  into  his  garner,  but 
the  chaff  he  will  burn  with  unquenchable  fire  (Matt.  '^-^  Luke  3'^'^'').  In  the  light 
of  this  latter  expression  we  must  understand  that  it  is  only  bis  followers  whom  he 
will  baptize  with  Holy  Spirit.  Those  who  reject  him  and  persist  in  evil  he  will 
baptize  with  fire.  This  interpretation  of  the  added  word  "  fire  "  is  further  borne 
out  by  the  fact  that  Luke,  when  referring  in  Acts  i^  and  ii^^  to  this  passage, 
quotes  it  in  the  Mark  form  and  applies  it  to  the  descent  of  the  spirit  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost.  Furthermore,  it  would  be  contrary  to  the  biblical  usage  and  con- 
ception of  the  spirit  of  God  to  assign  to  it  a  punitive  or  destructive  function. 


54  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

gave  commandment  to  the  apostles  through  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  i^). 
According  to  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  it  was  because 
Jesus  possessed  the  eternal  spirit  that  the  one  act  in  which  he  gave  up 
his  life,  obtained  for  his  followers  an  eternal  redemption  (Heb.  9"  ; 
cf.  pi-'^s-ss  jqI,  12. 14^^  ^Yhe  author  of  i  Peter  calls  it  the  spirit  of 
Christ,  and  says  that  it  testified  beforehand,  through  the  prophets,  of 
the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  the  glories  which  should  follow  them 
(i  Pet.  i^^;  cf.  Acts  16'^).  But  with  the  exception  of  a  few  such 
passages  these  writers  deal  only  with  the  relation  of  the  spirit  to  believ- 
ers. As  we  noted  above,  the  gospels  do  not  represent  the  disciples 
as  permanently  endowed  with  the  spirit  before  the  death  of  Jesus. 
Prior  to  that  time  the  spirit  came  to  them  only  on  certain  occasions 
and  for  particular  purposes.  After  the  ascension  of  Jesus,  however, 
according  to  the  Book  of  Acts,  as  well  as  according  to  the  epistles,  a// 
believeis  possess  the  spirit  of  God  as  a  permanent  endotvinent.  On 
the  original  group  of  Jesus'  followers  the  spirit  was  poured  forth  from 
heaven  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2^-^).  Other  believers  received 
it  at  the  time  when  (or  soon  after)  they  signified  their  allegiance  to 
Jesus  as  the  Christ  (Acts  2'^  532gi5.i6.17  ^17  jo43-43  nie.i?.  ^f.  Gal.  s'^-" 
5^).  Often,  according  to  the  Book  of  Acts,  the  method  by  which  the 
spirit  is  conveyed  to  them  is  through  the  laying  on  of  hands,  either 
of  the  apostles  or  of  some  disciple,  as  though  it  were  communicated 
from  one  believer  to  another  (Acts  8^^"^''  9"  19""^;  cf.  Heb.  6^-^). 

As  to  the  function  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  ideas  of  the  primitive 
church  (with  the  exception  of  certain  Pauhne  conceptions)  were  to 
a  great  extent  derived  from  the  Old  Testament.  Jesus  is  seldom 
appealed  to  on  this  subject.  Almost  every  Old  Testament  usage  can 
be  duplicated  in  the  New  Testament,  though  often  in  a  modified 
form.  There  is  not  only  a  return  to  the  view  of  the  spirit  as  the 
author  of  the  ecstatic,  but,  even  to  a  greater  degree,  as  the  author  of 
the  extraordinary  and  miraculous.  The  functions  of  the  spirit  as  set 
forth  in  Acts  (together  with  the  infancy  narratives  in  Luke)  and  the 
catholic  epistles,  may  be  arranged  under  three  general  heads  : 

id)    The  spirit  as  the  author  of  prophecy. 

The  larger  part  of  the  numerous  examples  which  come  under  this 
head  may  be  classed  as  predictive  prophecies.  In  the  proof  that 
Jesus  was  the  expected  Messiah,  it  was  natural  to  employ  the  predic- 
tive prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  (i  Pet.  i"  Rev.  19'"),  and  such 
employment  carried  with  it  the  feeling  that  prediction  was  one  of  the 
highest  functions  of  the  spirit.  The  Holy  Spirit  was  viewed  as 
the  active  agent  in  the  prophecy.     The  inspired  man  was  simply  the 


schoemaker:  the  use  of  nn  and  of  ttvcv/jm.  55 

mouthpiece  of  the  spirit  (Acts  i^^  4-^  2^-^  Heb.  3"  10'^  2  Pet.  i^;  cf. 
Matt.  2  2''-'  Mark  1 2'*).  Of  the  spirit  as  the  author  of  predictions  in  the 
Christian  dispensation,  there  are  several  instances,  mostly  found  in 
the  writings  of  Luke.  Thus  in  the  infancy  narratives,  EHzabeth, 
Zacharias,  and  Simeon,  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  all  make  predictive 
prophecies  (Luke  i''**'"  2^-'").  Agabus,  through  the  spirit,  prophesies 
a  great  famine  (Acts  n^),  and  also  foretells  Paul's  arrest  in  Jerusalem 
(Acts  21").  Many  times  Paul  was  told  by  the  prophets  that  he 
would  be  imprisoned  if  he  ventured  into  the  Holy  City  (Acts  20-* 
21*).  The  great  Christian  predictive  prophecy,  however,  is  the  Apoc- 
alypse of  John.  In  this  case  the  message  is  conveyed  to  the  writer 
by  the  spirit  through  a  vision  (Rev.  i^**  4- 1 7'^  21^").  This  reminds  one 
of  the  function  of  the  spirit  in  the  visions  of  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  i^  3-  8^ 
II-*),  only  in  the  present  case  the  spirit  speaks  through  the  prophet 
(Rev.  2^  14^^;  cf.  22^^),  as  well  as  transports  him  in  vision  from  place 
to  place. 

Akin  to  prophecy,  if  not  actually  a  part  of  it,  is  the  speaking  with 
tongues  mentioned  in  the  second  chapter  of  Acts.  Li  fact  the  author 
interprets  the  phenomenon  as  a  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  of  Joel 
^228  f.  [3I*'])  that  in  the  last  days  God  would  pour  forth  of  His  spirit 
upon  all  flesh  and  their  sons  and  daughters  should  prophesy  (Acts 
2^'--'^).  Under  the  symbols  of  a  rushing  wind  and  tongues  like  fire,  the 
writer  pictures  the  descent  of  the  spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and 
adds  that  those  upon  whom  the  Holy  Spirit  came  began  to  speak 
with  other  tongues,  as  the  spirit  gave  them  utterance  (Acts  2^^).  This 
speaking  with  tongues  is,  later  in  the  chapter  (2")  explained  as  the 
ability  to  set  forth  in  different  languages  the  "mighty  works  of  God." 
According  to  this  explanation  there  is  nothing  ecstatic  or  unintelli- 
gible in  the  phenomenon,  such  as  Paul  describes  in  i  Cor.  14.  It 
consists  simply  in  the  miraculous  power  to  speak  in  one  or  more 
languages  previously  unknown  to  the  speaker.  It  is  possible, 
indeed,  that  the  author  of  the  second  chapter  of  Acts  was  mistaken 
or  misinformed  in  this  interpretation  of  the  phenomenon,  and 
that  it  should  be  explained  in  the  light  of  the  Pauline  usage,^* 
There  are  still  marks  in  the  passage  itself  which  may  indicate  this. 
Those  who  were  under  the  influence  of  the  spirit  were  thought  to  be 
drunk  (Acts  2'^^^),  hence  must  have  been  in  a  state  akin  to  ecstasy. 
Then,  too,  the  other  references  in  the  Book  of  Acts  (lo'""'"  19*^)  con- 
cerning the  speaking  with  tongues  seem  to  favor  the  Pauline  meaning 

°^  See  McGiffert,  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  50-53  ;  Weinel :  Wirkwigen  des  Geistes, 
pp.  72  ff. 


56  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

rather  than  the  other.  There  is  no  implication  in  these  passages  that 
It  meant  speaking  in  different  languages.  Yet  the  passage  as  it  stands 
reflects  the  author's  conceptions  of  the  function  of  the  Spirit. 

{b)  The  spirit  as  the  helper  and  director  of  the  believer,  especially 
in  the  work  of  establishing  the  kingdoju  of  God  on  earth. 

Luke  is  constantly  speaking  of  this  helping  function  of  the  spirit. 
It  was  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah  that  John  the  Baptist  did  his 
work.  The  Holy  Spirit  gave  to  the  apostles  power  to  become  wit- 
nesses of  Jesus  both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  all  Judea  and  Samaria 
(Acts  I*;  cf.  I  Pet.  i^).  It  was  when  the  apostles  were  filled  with 
the  Holy  Spirit  that  they  were  enabled  to  speak  the  word  of  God  with 
boldness  (Acts  4^'^^).  The  seven  deacons  were  filled  with  the  spirit 
in  order  to  accomplish  their  particular  work  (Acts  6^-^).  Under  the 
inspiration  of  the  same  spirit,  Barnabas  exhorted  the  Christians  of 
Antioch  to  cleave  unto  the  Lord  (Acts  11^)  ;  and  Paul  was  enabled  to 
withstand  the  sorcerer  Elymas  (Acts  13^).  Paul  tells  the  elders  of 
Ephesus  that  the  Holy  Spirit  has  made  them  overseers  of  the  church 
of  God  (Acts  2o2«). 

But  the  spirit  is  also  a  helper  in  more  specific  ways  than  these.  It 
guides  and  directs  believers  in  cases  of  difficulty  or  unexpected 
crises.  Thus,  the  spirit  impels  Simeon  to  go  to  the  temple  to  see  the 
infant  Jesus  (Luke  2^'').  It  tells  Philip  to  join  the  chariot  of  the  eunuch 
(Acts  8-"'),  and  miraculously  catches  him  away  when  his  work  is  accom- 
plished (Acts  8^^;  cf.  I  Kings  18^^  2  Kings  2^*').  It  commands  Peter 
to  go  with  the  men  sent  from  Cornelius  (Acts  10^^  11^-).  It  directs 
Paul  and  Barnabas  to  go  on  a  missionary  journey  (Acts  13"'*),  and 
guides  them  in  the  proper  direction  (Acts  i6''-^).  It  aids  the  church 
of  Jerusalem  in  setthng  the  difficult  question  which  arose  in  the  An- 
tioch church  (Acts  15^^).  It  impels  Paul  to  go  to  Jerusalem  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  it  testifies  in  every  city  that  bonds  and  afflictions  await 
him  (Acts  20~-^).  In  times  of  persecution  and  distress,  it  causes  the 
believer  to  rejoice  even  in  the  midst  of  his  adversity  (Acts  13^^  i  Pet. 
4";cf.  Luke  lo^i  I  Thess.  i«). 

(c)    The  spirit  as  a  witnessing  and  revealing  power  in  the  believer. 

This  function  of  the  spirit  seems  to  be  similar  to  that  set  forth  by 
Jesus  in  the  gospel  of  John,  when  he  tells  the  disciples  that  the  spirit 
of  truth  wiU  lead  them  into  all  truth.  The  first  Epistle  of  John  repre- 
sents the  spirit  as  the  great  witnessing  power  in  the  behever  that  he 
has  eternal  life  through  Christ  (i  John  5*^;  cf.  5").  Through  the 
possession  of  the  spirit  he  knows  that  he  abides  in  God  and  God  in 
him  (i  John  3^^  4^^).     According  to  the  Book  of  Acts  the  Holy  Spirit 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE   USE   OF   Pn   AND   OF   irvevfXM.  5  7 

is  a  witness,  to  the  believer,  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  (Acts  5''-). 
The  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  in  referring  to  the  fact  that 
the  high  priest  alone  entered  into  the  holy  of  holies,  says  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  thus  signified  that  the  way  into  the  holy  place  had  not 
yet  been  made  manifest  (Heb.  g^).  Through  the  spirit,  in  a  vision, 
heaven  itself  was  revealed  to  Stephen  (Acts  j^),  and  by  the  spirit  the 
sin  of  Ananias  was  made  known  to  Peter  (Acts  5^).^  The  Jews  were 
not  able  to  withstand  the  wisdom  and  the  spirit  by  which  Stephen 
spake  (Acts  6''' ;  cf.  6^).  To  resist  his  words  was  to  resist  the  Holy 
Spirit  (Acts  7^^). 

(4)    T/ie  usage  of  the  Pauline  writings  in  respect  to  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Paul  gives  us  a  deeper  and  broader  view  of  the  work  of  the  spirit 
than  any  other  New  Testament  writer.  If  we  compare  his  teachings 
with  those  of  Jesus  as  set  forth  in  the  gospel  of  John,  we  see  that  he 
is  the  only  writer  who  develops  the  distinctly  Christian  conception  of 
the  spirit.  He  even  goes  beyond  the  teaching  of  Jesus  in  the  em- 
phasis which  he  lays  on  the  transforming  power  of  the  spirit  in  the 
life  of  the  believer.  Paul  at  the  same  time  sets  forth  in  a  more  vital 
way  than  any  other  writer  the  relation  existing  between  Jesus  and  the 
spirit.  He  tells  the  Galatians  that  God  sent  forth  the  spirit  of  his 
Son  into  their  hearts  crying  Abba,  Father  (Gal.  4" ;  cf.  Rom.  8^^),  and 
in  writing  to  the  Philippians,  he  mentions  his  desire  for  a  fresh  sup- 
ply of  the  spirit  of  Jesus  Christ  (Phil.  i^').  In  Rom.  8^,  he  makes 
the  phrase  "  spirit  of  Christ "  synonymous  with  "  spirit  of  God."  He 
goes  even  one  step  beyond  this  and  affirms  that  Christ,  through  the 
spirit,  dwells  in  the  believer  (Rom.  8^-^").  This  is  probably  what  he 
means  when  in  speaking  of  Christ,  he  says  in  2  Cor.  3^''  that  the 
"  Lord  is  the  spirit."  ^  In  the  second  clause  of  the  same  verse,  he 
defines  this  as  "  spirit  of  (the)  Lord."  '"'' 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  passages  which  refer  to  the  spirit  as 
the  spirit  of  Christ  or  the  spirit  of  Jesus  are  found  in  the  writings  of 
Paul,  or  of  those  writers,  Luke  (Acts  16")  and  the  author  of  i  Peter 
(i"),  who  are  under  the  immediate  influence  of  Paul.     Paul  thus 

^5  Observe  that  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  Ananias  to  deceive  the  spirit  is  in 
Acts  5'*  defined  as  an  attempt  to  deceive  God. 

^  This  identification  is  further  borne  out  in  2  Cor.  3^*,  if,  as  seems  to  be  the 
case  Ki5ptos  and  Trvevfia  are  in  apposition.  If,  as  is  less  probable,  the  latter  term 
limits  the  former,  then  we  have  Paul  referring  to  Christ  as  the  Lord  of  the  spirit 
(see  Meyer's  "Commentary "). 

°'^  Hvevfia  Kvplov  is  a  common  phrase  in  the  Septuagint,  though  it  is  seldom 
employed  in  the  New  Testament  (Luke  4^^  Acts  5^  8'^^).  It  occurs  in  Paul's 
writings  only  in  this  passage. 


58  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

seems  responsible  in  the  main  for  this  usage.  The  explanation  of  this 
can  be  found  only  in  his  conception  of  the  exalted  Christ,  and  in  his 
view  of  the  personality  of  the  spirit  as  indistinguishable  in  experience 
from  that  of  God  or  Christ.  Of  the  exalted  and  powerful  place  which 
Christ,  since  his  resurrection,  has  occupied,  Paul  is  continually  speak- 
ing. Christ  is  in  the  place  of  power  at  the  right  hand  of  God  (Rom. 
8'^  Eph.  I-"  Col.  3^).  God  has  iiighly  exalted  him  and  given  him  a 
name  which  is  above  every  name  (Phil.  2'"').  By  the  resurrection, 
he  has  been  constituted  son  of  God  with  power  (Rom.  i''). 

The  main  evidence  for  Paul's  conception  of  the  spirit  as  having  its 
personality  in  that  of  God  will  have  to  be  given  a  little  later  on.  It 
will  be  sufficient  at  this  point  to  call  attention  to  his  view  of  the  spirit 
as  the  great  bond  which  binds  together  all  Christians  into  a  spiritual 
unity  with  Christ.  Believers  were  all  made  to  drink  of  the  one  spirit, 
and  the  participation  in  this  one  spirit  binds  them  together  into  a 
single  organism  (i  Cor.  12^'';  cf.  Eph.  4^).  Of  this  organism  Christ 
is  the  head  (i  Cor.  11"  Eph.  4'''-^'^  Col.  i^®).  So  closely  is  Christ 
bound  to  the  believer  through  the  spirit,  that  they  can  be  called  one 
spirit  (i  Cor.  6^^^).  It  is  Paul's  earnest  plea  that  this  unity  of  believers 
through  the  spirit  be  preserved  (Phil,  i-''  Eph.  4"),  for  it  is  through 
Christ  that  all  believers  have  access  by  one  spirit  unto  the  Father 
(Eph.  2'^).  With  this  view  of  the  exalted  Christ,  seated  at  the  right 
hand  of  God,  the  head  of  the  great  Christian  organism  which  is  com- 
posed of  his  followers  ;  and  with  this  view  of  the  penetrating,  life- 
imparting  spirit  which  binds  all  together  into  a  spiritual  unity  with 
Christ,  it  is  not  strange  that  he  could  refer  to  the  spirit  as  the  spirit 
of  Christ.  But  with  Paul,  as  with  the  other  New  Testament  writers, 
God  was  always  regarded  as  the  ultimate  source  of  the  spirit.  It 
was  his  spirit  and  he  bestowed  it  as  a  free  gift  (Rom.  5*^  2  Cor.  i^ 
5^  Gal.  3^  4"  Eph.  i^'  2  Tim.  i'). 

As  to  the  functions  of  the  spirit  Paul  is  much  "more  explicit  than 
other  writers.  In  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth  chapters  of  i  Corin- 
thians, in  writing  to  Gentile  converts  who  had  probably  never  heard 
of  the  spirit  until  they  were  converted  to  Christianity,  he  enumerates 
with  some  care  the  gifts  of  the  spirit.  Chief  among  these  are  speak- 
ing with  tongues,  prophesying,  working  miracles,  and  speaking  the 
word  of  wisdom.  For  the  edification  of  the  church  these  gifts  were 
not  all  on  a  par.  In  fact  Paul  mentions  them  in  order  to  commend 
some  above  others. 

{a)  The  gift  of  speaking  zvith  tongues.  This  was  the  most  coveted 
and  showy  of  the  gifts  of  the  spirit.      The  phenomena  connected 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE   USE   OF   PlTl   AND   OF   Trvevfxa.  59 

with  it  are  quite  fully  described  in  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth 
chapters  of  i  Corinthians.  It  is  perfectly  clear  from  these  chapters 
that  the  person  who  exercised  this  gift  was,  while  doing  so,  in  a  state 
of  ecstasy ;  and  that  what  he  said  while  in  this  state  was  unintelli- 
gible to  the  ordinary  hearer,  and  usually  to  the  speaker  himself. 
This  speaking  with  tongues  seemed  to  consist  largely,  if  not  wholly, 
of  prayers,  thanksgivings,  and  songs,  i.e.  it  was  directed  toward  God, 
rather  than,  as  prophecy  was,  toward  men  (i  Cor.  14-'*  ""^'').  In 
these  prayers  and  songs  the  intellect  of  the  man  took  no  active  part 
(i  Cor,  14^^^'^).  It  needed  some  one,  either  the  man  himself  or 
some  other  person,  with  a  special  gift  of  the  spirit,  to  interpret  what 
had  been  said  (i  Cor.  12^";  cf.  14-'-). 

In  this  ecstatic  phenomenon,  which  was  regarded  by  the  primitive 
church  as  the  leading  function  of  the  spirit,  we  have  a  return  in  a 
somewhat  modified  form  of  one  of  the  earliest  views  of  the  spirit  and 
its  work  (i  Sam.  10'"*';  cf.  i  Sam.  19^'  -").  As  at  that  time  it  took 
prolonged  and  vigorous  effort  to  disengage  the  ecstatic  from  the  con- 
ception of  the  function  of  the  spirit,  so  now  again  the  same  fight  had 
to  be  made,  and  it  was  Paul  who  first  began  the  conflict.  It  was 
only  thus  that  the  conception  of  the  spirit  in  its  higher  functions 
could  be  retained. 

Ill  r  Cor.  14"  ^^,  by  a  natural  metonymy,  we  have  the  spirit  of 
God  which  the  man  possesses  spoken  of  as  the  man's  spirit.^  This 
is  not  an  uncommon  procedure,  since  in  this  same  chapter  Paul 
speaks  of  the  ''spirits  of  the  prophets,"  meaning  thereby  the  spirits 
(or  spirit)  possessed  by  the  prophets  (i  Cor.  i4'^-).  So,  too,  the 
writer  of  the  Apocalypse,  in  the  same  sense,  speaks  of  the  "  spirits  of 
the  prophets"  (Rev.  22";  cf  Luke  i''^"^^,  where  John,  who  was  said 
to  be  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit  from  the  time  of  his  birth,  is  in  the 
immediate  context  spoken  of  as  going  forth  in  the  spirit  and  power 
of  Elijah,  viz.,  the  spirit  of  God  given  to  Elijah). 

(d)  The  gift  of  prophecy.  Unlike  other  New  Testament  writers, 
Paul  seldom  Hmited  this  gift  of  the  spirit  to  prediction  (cf  i  Tim. 
4^).     With  him   it  meant  the  larger  prophetic  function  connected 

^^  That  the  writer  does  not  here  refer  to  the  human  spirit  is  clear  from  the 
context.  For  in  14^  it  is  said  that  the  man  who  speaks  with  a  tongue  speaks  to 
God,  for  by  the  spirit  {i.e.  God's  spirit)  he  speaks  mysteries,  which  no  man  can 
understand;  again,  in  14^'',  that  the  unlearned  cannot  say  amen  if  one  gives 
thanks  in  or  by  the  spirit  (God's  spirit).  Furthermore,  it  would  be  contrary  to 
any  known  meaning  of  TrveOfj.a  when  used  of  the  human  spirit  to  give  it  a  mean- 
ing diametrically  opposed  to  that  of  mind  (vovs),  as  on  this  view  the  author  has 
done  in  these  verses. 


6o  JOURNAL    OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

with  the  dehvery  of  any  message  of  God  to  men.  He  regarded  the 
gift  of  prophecy  as  more  to  be  desired  than  the  gift  of  tongues,  since 
it  ministered  to  the  edification  of  others  (i  Cor.  i^"*'').  They  were, 
however,  gifts  of  the  same  spirit  (i  Cor.  12"  "),  hence  were  both  to 
be  encouraged  (r  Cor.  14'"').  He  tells  the  Thessalonians  not  to 
quench  the  spirit  or  to  despise  prophesying  (i  Thess.  5^^^).  He  finds 
it  necessary,  however,  to  warn  the  Corinthians  against  excesses, 
hence  he  lays  down  the  principle  that  the  spirits  of  the  prophets  are 
subject  to  the  prophets  (i  Cor.  14"').  The  writer  of  2  Thessalonians 
warns  believers  not  to  be  too  easily  disturbed  by  what  a  prophet  says 
(2  Thess.  2").  Since,  however,  there  are  false  as  well  as  true 
prophets,  and  since  only  the  latter  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
spirit  of  God  (cf.  i  John  4^"''''),  it  is  necessary  to  discriminate 
between  them.  This  power  to  discriminate  between  the  spirits  of 
the  true  and  false  prophets  Paul  makes  also  a  distinct  function  or  gift 
of  the  spirit  (i  Cor.  12^"). 

(c)  The  gift  of  the  spirit  to  wofk  miracles.  This  characteristic 
power  of  Jesus  (Luke  4" ;  cf.  Acts  lo'^)  was  also  possessed,  to  a  lim- 
ited extent,  by  his  followers.  Paul  distinctly  names  the  ability  to 
work  miracles  among  the  functions  of  the  spirit  (i  Cor.  12^-^"),  and 
refers  to  it  in  connection  with  the  spirit  several  times  (Gal.  3^  Rom. 
15^^  I  Thess.  i^).  Other  writers,  though  mentioning  the  power  to 
work  miracles,  do  not  connect  it  immediately  with  the  spirit. 

(c/)  The  spirit  as  the  bearer  of  luisdom  and  kiwiuledge  to  the  believer 
—  especially  knowledge  concerning  God  and  the  7vay  of  salvation. 
This  is  one  of  the  functions  of  the  spirit  set  forth  by  Jesus  in  the 
gospel  of  John.  Paul  is  the  only  New  Testament  writer  who  elabo- 
rates it  to  any  extent.  In  this  he  also  carries  to  completion  the 
views  of  the  Apocrypha  and  Philo.  Paul  enumerates  among  the 
gifts  of  the  spirit  the  word  of  wisdom  and  the  word  of  knowledge 
(i  Cor.  12*).  He  tells  the  Corinthians  that  he  did  not  come  to 
them  with  the  wisdom  of  this  world,  but  in  demonstration  of  the 
spirit  and  of  power  (i  Cor.  2^;  cf.  2^-").  He  compares  the  spirit  of 
God  to  the  spirit  of  man,  and  says  that  as  none  but  the  spirit  of  man 
knows  the  things  of  man  so  the  spirit  of  God  alone  knows  the  things 
pertaining  to  God  (i  Cor.  2"-^-).  This  knowledge  of  the  things  of 
God  the  spirit  freely  communicates  to  those,  and  those  alone,  who 
possess  the  spirit  and  have  been  renewed  by  it  (i  Cor.  2^''-^'^"). 
This  passage  has  often  been  used  as  evidence  of  Paul's  belief  in  the 
separate  personality  of  the  spirit.  However,  the  very  comparison 
with  the  mind  of  man  seems  entirely  to  preclude  such  a  concep- 


SCHOEMAKER  :    THE   USE   OF   Hn   AND   OF   Trv€vfjux.  6 1 

tion/^"  Moreover,  this  is  exactly  the  function  ascribed  to  the  spirit  in 
the  Apocrypha  and  Philo,  and  a  personality  separate  from  God  is  not 
ascribed  to  the  spirit  by  those  writers.  In  particular,  the  spirit  bears 
witness  to  the  believer  that  he  is  a  son  of  God  (Rom.  8^^-^^  Gal.  4^ 
2  Tim.  i'^).  Through  the  spirit  the  love  of  God  for  him  is  shed 
abroad  in  his  heart  (Rom.  5').  The  very  possession  of  the  spirit  is  a 
guarantee  of  present  reconciliation  with  God,  and  a  pledge  of  com- 
plete salvation  in  the  future  (2  Cor.  i"  5'  Eph.  i"  4""  Rom.  S'-*  Gal. 
5' ;  cf.  I  John  y*  4^')- 

(e)  The  spirit  as  the  regenerating  and  sanctifying  power  in  the  char- 
acter and  conduct  of  the  believer.  Here  again  the  teaching  of  Paul 
accords  with  and  completes  that  of  Jesus  in  the  gospel  of  John  ;  and 
since  no  other  writer,  either  in  the  Old  or  New  Testament,  elabo- 
rates this  function  of  the  spirit,  it  may  be  called  the  unique  Christian 
contribution  to  the  conception  of  the  spirit.  In  this  case,  the  spirit 
is  viewed  as  an  ethical  dynamic,  a  transforming  power  within  the 
man.  In  all  other  cases  it  is  regarded  as  a  power  operating  upon 
the  man  from  without,  the  man  being  a  sort  of  instrument  or  agent 
of  the  spirit.  If  the  older  functions  of  the  spirit  are  called  gifts 
(i  Cor.  12''),  this  newer  one  may  be  appropriately  designated  d^  fruit 
(Gal.  5--).  Paul  did  not  attempt  to  discredit  the  older  views.  He 
simply  showed  that  there  was  a  more  ethical  way  of  viewing  the 
spirit  (i  Cor.  12^^).  As  early  as  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity 
the  spirit  was  viewed  as  partaking  of  God's  holiness  (Ps.  51"!^^'^^  Isa. 
63^"'") ;  and  Paul,  as  well  as  other  New  Testament  writers,  but  more 
thoroughly  than  they,  was  imbued  with  the  same  conception.  In 
accordance  with  this  view  the  spirit  cannot  dwell  in  a  corrupt  man 
(i  Cor.  3^*^  6^'";  cf.  Eph.  4^^"  Heb.  lo-"^),  nor  can  it  participate  in 
any  corrupt  conduct  (cf.  Jas.  4^  Jude  ^''). 

Paul,  as  well  as  Jesus,  uses  the  figure  of  birth  for  the  vital  trans- 
formation brought  about  by  the  spirit  (Gal.  4^),  but  more  often  he 
simply  speaks  of  the  life-imparting  power  of  the  spirit,  or  of  the  life 
imparted  by  the  spirit  (Rom.  S"*'"  2  Cor.  i^-^-^  Gal.  5-').  The- 
spirit,  however,  not  only  performs  the  first  act  of  regeneration  in  the 
believer ;  it  continues  to  be  in  him  a  sanctifying  power  throughout 
life  (Rom.  15^"  i  Cor.  6"  3^"  i  Thess.  4*  2  Thess.  2^^  Titus  3'  i  Pet. 
I-),  and  at  the  end  transforms  his  mortal  body  into  one  fitted  for  his 
eternal  abode  (Rom.  8"-'').  It  helps  him  to  pray  (Eph.  6^^  Jude  ^) ; 
in  fact,  intercedes  for  him  when  he  does  not  know  what  he  ought  to 

^^  See  Drummond,  Commentaries  on  Thessalonians,  Corinthians,  Galatians, 
etc.  (International  Handbook  series). 


62  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE. 

ask  (Rom.  8-^-^).  Thus,  the  fellowship  of  the  spirit  is  necessary  at 
all  times  (2  Cor.  13^""-*^  Phil.  2^  2  Tim.  i"  Eph.  6''^).  True  worship 
is  impossible  without  it  (Phil.  3^  Eph.  5^*).  The  condition  upon 
which  this  quickening  spirit  is  bestowed  upon  man  is  faith  in  Christ 
(Gal.  3"^"5^);  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  spirit  produces  more 
faith  in  the  believer  (i  Cor.  12^  2  Cor.  4^'^  Gal.  5--).  Other  fruits 
produced  by  the  spirit  are  righteousness,  hope,  love,  joy,  peace,  long- 
suffering,  kindness,  goodness,  meekness,  and  selfcontrol  (Rom.  14^^ 
J ^13. 30  g6  2  Cor.  6^  Gal.  5--^-  Col.  i«  2  Tim.  i').  Since  the  believer 
has  been  renewed  by  the  spirit,  his  conduct  in  all  things  ought  to  be 
governed  by  this  same  indwelling  spirit  (Gal.  5-^  Rom.  8^-^-";  cf. 
I  Cor.  7*).  And  if  a  man  so  walk  he  will  not  be  led  astray  by  his 
fleshly  appetites  and  impulses  (Gal.  5^^--^^  Rom.  g***-^-'^).  Neither 
will  he  be  under  the  bondage  of  law  (Gal.  5'^  3^).  He  serves  God  in 
a  new  way  made  possible  by  the  spirit,  not  in  the  old  way  of  legalism 
(Rom.  7®).  His  circumcision  has  been  that  of  the  heart  by  the  spirit, 
not  that  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  (Rom.  2-^;  cf.  2  Cor.  3'^*'). 
Thus  by  continually  sowing  to  the  spirit  the  believer  will  finally  of 
the  spirit  reap  eternal  life  (Gal.  6^).  We  have  already  considered 
Paul's  view  of  the  spirit  as  the  vital  bond  which  unites  Christ  and  his 
followers  into  a  single  organism.  The  examples  there  brought  for- 
ward also  illustrate  the  present  usage  of  irvevixi.  It  is  thus  seen  that 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases  in  which  Paul  uses  TrvsC/Aa  for  the  spirit 
of  God  he  gives  it  this  ethical  significance.  So  predominant  is  the 
use  of  the  term  in  this  sense  that,  especially  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  the  term  takes  on  a  qualitative  sense,  which  renders  un- 
necessary a  qualifying  noun  or  even  the  article  to  distinguish  its 
reference.  When  his  Gentile  converts  in  Corijith,  possibly  in  con- 
sequence of  their  heathen  conception  of  demons  (cf.  i  Cor.  12-), 
seemed  to  be  under  the  impression  that  they  each  possessed  a  sepa- 
rate spirit  of  God,  Paul  devoted  a  section  of  his  letter  (i  Cor.  12^") 
to  pointing  out  to  them  that  they  all  partook  of  the  o7ie  spirit,*** 
which  distributed  to  each  believer  the  gifts  which  he  possessed. 
The  quantitative  conception  of  the  spirit  is  still  held  by  Paul,  as  it 
had  been  by  older  Jewish  writers."^     And  his  Gentile  pupil,  Luke,  is 

^'>  It  would  seem  prol^able  that  sooner  or  later  the  Gentile  Christians,  who  had 
not  been  educated,  as  the  Jews  had,  into  a  conception  of  the  general,  non-per- 
sonal nature  of  the  spirit  of  God,  would  come  to  conceive  it  as  having  a  person- 
ality separate  from  God. 

^^  Even  in  the  benediction  2  Cor.  i3i"[i'*l  there  is  little  indication  of  a  recog- 
nition by  Paul  of  the  separate  personality  of  the  spirit.      For  in  the  first  place. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE   USE   OF   Pll"!   AND   OF   Ttvevfxa.  6t, 

constantly  using  the  phrase  "  filled  with  the  spirit."  There  is  but 
one  passage  in  the  New  Testament  which  seems  with  any  degree  of 
probability  to  indicate  a  tendency  toward  the  conception  of  the  sep- 
arate personality  of  the  spirit.  This  is  the  baptismal  formula  in  the 
closing  chapter  of  Matthew  (28''-').  As  we  saw  above,  the  date  of 
this  passage  is  uncertain  ;  and,  furthermore,  Deissmann "'-  has  shown 
quite  conclusively,  from  Greek  papyri,  that  the  phrase  "  into  the 
name"  (eis  to  ovofxa)  means  "belonging  to."  The  baptism  of  the 
believer  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  would 
thus  mean  into  the  possession  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit ; 
and  since  the  believer  was  always  thought  of  as  possessed  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  this  would  not  yet  be  clear  evidence  of  a  belief  in  the 
separate  personality  (apart  from  God)  of  the  spirit. 

b)  For  the  human  spirit  (i.e.  the  spirit  of  the  living  man). 

(i)  The  seat  or  soiiixe  of  strong  excitement,  aroused  activity  {or 
corresponding  depression),  and  in  a  very  few  cases  of  anger  or  impa- 
tience. This,  one  of  the  oldest  meanings  of  1111,  was  transferred 
directly  to  irvevfxa  by  the  Greek-speaking  Jews.  The  characteristic 
note  anger,  however,  has  almost  wholly  disappeared  (cf.  John  11^ 
Acts  I  y^'').  Jesus  tells  his  disciples  that  the  spirit  is  willing  (eager, 
ready)  but  the  flesh  is  weak  (Matt.  26^^  Mark  14"*).  According  to 
the  gospel  of  Mark,  it  is  said  that  he  sighed  deeply  in  his  spirit  ^ 
(8^-) ;  and  according  to  John,  that  he  groaned  (literally  was  moved 
with  indignation)  in  spirit  and  was  troubled  (John  11^  13"^)-  Paul 
sometimes  speaks  of  his  spirit  (or  that  of  Titus)  being  refreshed 
(rested  or  relaxed)  upon  receiving  some  good  news  from  or  concern- 
ing his  churches  (i  Cor.  16'*  2  Cor.  2"  7'^^;  cf.  7^  and  Philem.'*'). 
His  spirit  was  irritated  (aroused  to  anger)  when  he  beheld  the  city 
full  of  idols  (Acts  1 7^*^).  It  is  said  of  Apollos  that  he  was  fervent 
(^eW,  boiling)  in  the  spirit  (Acts  18-^) ;  and  Paul  exhorts  the  church 
at  Rome  to  be  fervent  in  spirit  in  their  service  of  the  Lord  (Rom. 
12^').     It  is  probably  in  this  sense  that  Paul  uses  the  word  in  the 

though  naming  the  three  in  succession,  he  does  not  give  them  in  the  order,  nor 
does  he  use  the  customary  terms  ("  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  ")  of  the  trinitarian 
formula;  and  in  the  second  place,  the  function  which  he  ascribes  to  each  is  that 
which  is  characteristic  with  him,  viz.,  the  "grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  the  love  of 
God,  and  the  fellozuship  of  the  Holy  Spirit  "  (on  the  latter  cf.  Phil.  2I). 

6-  Bible  Studies  (Eng.  trans.),  pp.  146-148,  196-198;  see  also  Bernard  in  the 
Expositor,  January,  1902,  p.  43. 

^'^  Observe  the  use  of  the  article,  but  not  the  preposition  iv,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  spirit  of  God  (see  footnote  51).  This  seems  to  be  the  customary  form  when 
the  human  spirit  is  referred  to.     See  the  other  passages  under  this  head. 


64  JOURNAL   OF    BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

phrase  "  whom  I  serve  in  my  spirit,"  when  he  calls  God  to  witness 
how  unceasingly  he  has  prayed  for  them  (Rom.  i^ ;  cf.  Acts  26^ 
Rom.  7^  2  Tim.  i''). 

(2)  The  seat  of  humility.  This  meaning  has  also  been  transferred 
from  nil  to  irvevfj-a,  though  the  former  term  was  not  used  in  this 
sense  before  the  Babylonian  exile.  There  are  but  few  examples  in 
the  New  Testament.  Paul  asks  the  Corinthian  church  whether  he 
should  come  to  them  in  love  and  a  spirit  of  meekness  (i  Cor.  4-'). 
He  tells  the  Galatians  to  restore  an  erring  brother  in  a  spirit  of 
meekness  (Gal.  6^).  The  author  of  i  Peter  exhorts  believers  to 
have  a  meek  and  quiet  spirit  (i  Pet.  3'');  and  Jesus  in  one  of 
the  beatitudes  says,  "  Blessed  are  the  poor  in  the  (their)  spirit " 
(Matt.  5=^)." 

(3)  As  the  seat  and  source  of  thoughts  a?id  purposes,  sometimes 
used  of  mind  in  the  broad  sense  in  which  that  ter-m  is  used  to-day,  viz., 
of  the  total  psychic  life.  Paul  is  almost  the  sole  New  Testament 
writer  who  employs  the  word  in  this  sense,  and  the  others  who  do  so 
were  probably  under  his  influence.  Since  Philo  is  the  only  writer 
prior  to  Paul  who  uses  irvevixa  with  this  meaning,  it  is  possible  that 
the  latter  was  under  the  direct  influence  of  the  former.  There  is, 
however,  no  clear  evidence  of  this ;  hence  it  is  more  probable  that 
the  influence  came  through  a  school  of  writers  of  whom  Philo  and 
the  author  of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  were  only  two  leading  repre- 
sentatives. We  have  already  seen  that  Paul,  like  these  writers,  views 
the  spirit  of  God  as  the  bearer  of  wisdom  and  knowledge  to  man. 
Hence  it  is  not  strange  that  he  should  develop  the  meanings  of 
TTvtvfia  on  the  human  side  in  the  same  direction,  especially  since  he 
could  not  (as  Philo  could)  use  the  term  ipvx^j  (soul)  in  the  full  clas- 
sical sense  of  mind.  The  Jewish  usage  of  this  term  was  much  too 
narrow  for  that. 

In  comparing  the  divine  spirit  with  the  human  spirit,  Paul  defines 
the  latter  as  the  seat  of  self-consciousness  or  self-knowledge  (i  Cor. 
2^^).  That  it  is  in  some  sense  synonymous  with  the  Greek  term  vov<; 
is  clear  from  the  way  in  which  he  relates  the  terms  "  spirit  of  the 
Lord  "  and  "mind  of  the  Lord"  (cf.  i  Cor.  2'"*  with  2^'^  and  Rom.  ii-^). 
A  similar  conception  of  the  human  spirit  is  expressed  in  Rom.  S^*', 
where  it  is  said  that  the  spirit  of  God  bears  witness  with  our  spirit 
that  we  are  children  of  God.      In  several  passages  man  is  referred  to 

^*  Observe  that  the  article  is  used  with  irvevfia,  and  cf.  footnote  51.  That  this 
is  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  passage  is  also  clear  from  a  comparison  with 
Matt.  1 83-^. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE   USE   OF   W"!   AND   OF   TTvevfj-a.  65 

as  spirit  and  body.  Paul  tells  his  followers  he  is  with  them  in  spirit 
(thoughts,  purposes,  affections),  though  absent  from  them  in  body 
(i  Cor.  5^-^  Col.  2^).  A  believer  is  to  be  pure  in  body  and  spirit 
(i  Cor.  7^^  2  Cor.  7^).  He  is  to  put  off  the  old  man  and  be  renewed 
in  the  spirit  (thoughts  and  purposes)  of  his  mind  [vo?s]  (Eph.  4^'';  cf. 
Rom.  12-2  Cor.  4"^  Col.  3^").  Because  of  sin  the  body  is  dead  {i.e. 
cannot  expect  to  enter  heaven),  but  the  spirit  is  alive  because  of  the 
righteousness  which  it  possesses  (Rom.  8^").  Paul  advises  that  the 
Corinthian  fornicator  be  delivered  over  to  Satan  for  the  destruction 
of  the  flesh,*"^  in  order  that  the  spirit  may  be  ready  for  salvation  (i.e. 
may  be  righteous)  when  Jesus  comes.  His  prayer  for  the  Thessa- 
lonian  church  is  that  the  God  of  peace  might  sanctify  them  wholly, 
and  that  their  spirit  and  soul  and  body  might  be  preserved  entire 
and  without  blame  until  the  cdming  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  In 
I  Tim.  3^®  Jesus  is  said  to  have  been  declared  righteous  in  spirit.^ 
So  anxious  is  Paul  concerning  the  welfare  of  the  spirit  of  those  to 
whom  he  writes  that  he  closes  several  of  his  letters  with  the  bene- 
diction, "  The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  your  spirit, 
brethren  "  (Gal.  6'*  Phil.  4-^  2  Tim.  4--  Philem.  25).  Paul  seems  to 
have  been  led  to  this  enlarged  usage  of  -n-vevfia  for  the  human  spirit 
by  a  feeling  of  need  for  a  wider  term  than  any  in  vogue  to  express 
the  whole  psychic  life  of  man,  especially  of  such  a  man  as  had  been 
renewed  by  the  spirit  of  God.*^^  An  evidence  of  this  is  seen  in  his 
use  of  such  phrases  as  "  the  inner  man  "  (Rom.  7"  2  Cor.  4^*^  Eph. 
3^«),  and  "  the  new  man  "  (Eph.  4-*  Col.  3^'^). 

In  this  use  of  irvtvixa  Paul  is  followed  by  very  {q\v  writers.  There 
are  two  or  three  examples  in  Luke's  writings  and  one  in  Mark's. 
The  child  Jesus  is  said  to  have  grown  and  waxed  strong  in  spirit 
(Luke  I*";  cf.  2^").  Mary  rejoiced  in  spirit  (Luke  i*^),  and  Paul 
purposed  in  the  spirit  (Acts  19-^;  cf.  Luke  1^).  In  the  gospel  of 
Mark,  Jesus  is  said  to  have  perceived  in  his  spirit  what  the  scribes 
were  reasoning  about  (Mark  2^ ;  cf.  5'^  Luke  5-^  John  C'^').  These 
constitute  the  remaining  New  Testament  examples.  The  only  one 
of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  to  adopt  this  usage  of  Paul  is  Ignatius,  and 
the  latter  is  far  from  employing  it  with  the  same  clear-cut  meaning 
as  the  former. 

6S  (Tap^,  since  it  is  conceived  by  Paul  to  be  the  seat  of  the  baser  animal  pas- 
sions, is  often  used  by  metonymy  for  those  passions. 

®®  Since  iv  irveunaTi  is  the  form,  this  may  mean  "  by  the  spirit,"  referring  to 
the  divine  spirit.     Cf.  footnote  51. 

^'  Such  terms  as  vous,  ^vxVi  and  Kapdla  expressed  it  only  in  separate  phases. 


66  JOURNAL   OF   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE. 

c)   For  unembodied  or  disembodied  spirits. 

(i)  Divine  and  afigelic  beings  capable  of  existence  without  a 
physical  body.  The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  speaks 
of  the  angels  as  ministering  spirits  (Heb.  i";  cf.  i'^),'^  and  the  author 
of  the  Apocalypse,  as  spirits  who  stand  before  the  throne  (Rev.  i* 
3^  4^  5^).  Paul  calls  Jesus  in  his  risen  state  a  spirit,  though  in  this 
case  he  clearly  implies  that  Christ  has  a  glorified  body  (i  Cor.  15'''). 
In  the  description  of  Jesus  which  he  gives  in  the  first  chapter  of 
Romans  (i^'  ■*),  Paul  characterizes  him  as  born  son  of  David  accord- 
ing to  the  flesh  {i.e.  according  to  human  kinship  or  relationship),  but 
constituted  son  of  God  with  power  by  the  resurrection  from  the  dead 
according  to  spirit  of  holiness  {i.e.  according  to  his  spiritual  relation- 
ship). Thus  in  this  passage,  7n/eS/xa  seems  to  be  a  general  desig- 
nation for  the  divine  heavenly  or  holy  beings  among  whom  Jesus  is 
now  the  highest  personage.  When,  in  John  4-'',  God  is  said  to  be 
spirit,  irvtvixa  may  denote  nothing  more  than  that  God  is  not  physi- 
cally embodied.  See,  however,  under  "  spirit  of  God  "  for  another 
interpretation. 

(2)  Demons.,  or  evil  spirits,  non-embodied,  i.e.  having  no  proper 
bodies  of  their  own,  but  often  conceived  as  inhabiting  the  bodies  of  living 
persons.  The  demons  described  in  the  synoptic  gospels  and  the 
Book  of  Acts  are  usually  regarded  as  the  cause  of  physical  disease  or 
of  mental  derangement."^  Paul  does  not  use  the  term  -n-vevfxa  in  this 
sense.  The  evil  spirits  of  which  he  speaks  have  an  influence  upon 
the  morals  of  the  people  over  whom  they  gain  control.  Thus,  he 
says,  the  Gentiles  walked  according  to  the  course  of  this  world, 
according  to  the  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air,  of  the  spirit  that  now 
worketh  in  the  children  of  disobedience  (Eph.  2').  Evidently  re- 
ferring to  the  same  spirit  he  tells  his  converts  that  they  have  not 
received  the  spirit  of  the  world  (i  Cor.  2^-),  nor  the  spirit  of  bondage 
(Rom.  8^^;  cf.  11*),  nor  the  spirit  of  fearfulness  (2  Tim.  i').™ 
The  false  prophets  are  regarded  as  being  possessed  by  evil  spirits 
(i  John  4^-^'';  cf.  i  Cor.  12'").  In  a  couple  of  passages,  Luke  uses 
Trvevfm  of  disembodied  beings  without  saying  anything  about  their 
character  (Luke  24^""^^;  Acts  23*-^). 

^8  The  spirits  mentioned  in  12^  are  probably  angels.     See  footnote  23. 
eniatt.  816  loi    i2«.45  Mark   123.20.27  3II.30  52.8.1.3  (,7  725  9I-.20.23  Lu^g  488.36 

618  721  82.  29  g39.  42  io20ii24.26  l3nActS5lC  8'^   16I6I8  19I2.  L5.  16  Rgy.   l613- »  I  S". 

™  Since  the  spirit  mentioned  in  these  passages  is  in  every  case  contrasted  with 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  since  it  is  also  implied  that  it  comes  upon  men  from  with- 
out, it  is  quite  evident  that  the  word  wvevfj.a  cannot  here  refer  to  the  human 
spirit. 


SCHOEMAKER  :     THE    USE    OF    HI"!    AND    OF   irvCVfJiCL.  67 

(3)  Fo>-  disctnbodicd  human  spirits.  This  usage  occurs  but  seldom. 
The  common  word  for  this  in  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  else- 
where, is  ^v)(rj  (soul).  When  Trvei'/u-a  is  used  in  this  sense  it  is  clearly 
a  synonym  of  i/'ux*?.  Thus  the  author  of  i  Peter,  under  the  direct 
influence  of  the  Book  of  Enoch,  speaks  of  the  spirits  in  prison  unto 
whom  Jesus  went  in  spirit  {i.e.  in  a  disembodied  state)  to  preach 
the  gospel  (i  Pet.  3^*-^''*  4").  The  spirits  of  just  ones  made  perfect, 
spoken  of  in  the  Book  of  Hebrews,  are  probably  human  spirits  (12-^). 
Luke  also  seems  to  use  Trvev/Aa  in  this  sense,  but  apparently  for 
another  reason  than  that  of  the  former  writers.  They  called  the 
souls  of  dead  persons  spirits  because  they  possessed  no  physical 
bodies  ;  he,  under  the  influence  of  Paul,  conceived  of  the  spirit  as 
departing  from  the  body  (Luke  8^  23*^  Acts  7^^).  Paul  himself 
does  not  use  the  term  of  dead  persons  (except  of  Jesus),  but  from 
the  way  in  which  he  uses  it  of  living  persons  there  can  be  Uttle  doubt 
as  to  his  willingness  to  do  so  on  occasion  (cf.  i  Cor.  5^  Rom.  8'"). 
There  is  but  one  clear  case  of  this  use  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers 
(Shepherd  of  Hermas,  Visions  i,  2,  4).  This  usage  does  not  seem  to 
have  become  popular  until  much  later.  The  word  ^v)(y]  (soul)  was 
too  commonly  used  to  be  easily  displaced. 


VITA. 


I,  William  Ross  Schoemaker,  was  born  on  the  fourth  day  of  Sep- 
tember, 1863,  in  Muscatine  County,  State  of  Iowa.  My  common 
school  education  was  received  in  the  public  schools  of  that  county, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1886  I  entered  the  Iowa  State  College  (Ames, 
la,).  From  that  college,  in  the  autumn  of  1889,  I  received  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science,  and  during  the  next  year  was  engaged 
as  Assistant  in  Mathematics  at  the  same  institution.  In  the  fall  of 
1890,  I  matriculated  as  a  graduate  student  in  mathematics  and 
physics  in  Cornell  University  (Ithaca,  N.Y.).  In  January,  1892, 
I  received  the  appointment  of  Instructor  in  Mathematics  at  Cornell 
University,  which  position  I  retained  until  1894.  In  October  of 
that  year  I  matriculated  as  a  student  in  the  Divinity  School  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  where  I  continued  my  studies  until  the 
autumn  of  1902.  My  work  while  there  consisted  of  the  regular 
three  years'  course  in  the  Graduate  Divinity  School  (for  which  I 
was  granted  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity),  and  special  work 
in  the  departments  of  Systematic  and  Biblical  Theology.  In  this 
latter  work  I  am  especially  indebted  to  Professors  George  B.  Foster 
and  Ernest  D.  Burton  for  their  direction  and  oversight. 


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